Electromagnetic Waves

Basic Equations of Electricity and Magnetism

For non time varying magnetic/electric field

Field Gauss’s Law Ampere’s Law

𝑞
For Electrostatics ර 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = ර 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 0
𝜀0

For Magnetism ර 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 0 ර 𝐵 . 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝜇0 𝑖

 Faraday’s Law for Time Varying Magnetic Field

• Electric field (𝐸) is generated due to time varying 𝐵(𝑡)

Magnetic field 𝐵(𝑡). 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑

𝑑𝜙𝐵
ර 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = −
𝑑𝑡

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑
• Time varying magnetic field leads to induced electric
field. Similarly, time varying electric field leads to
magnetic field.

• Electric field inside a capacitor varies as charge on it varies with time

when connected in AC circuit.
 Modified Ampere’s Law and Displacement Current

• Ampere’s law for constant M.F. and E.F.

+
+
−
−
+ −
𝑖 + − 𝑖
ර 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = 𝜇𝑜 𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑐 : Conduction current
+ −
2

• Modified Ampere’s law: 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐

1
𝜀𝑜 𝑑𝜙𝐸
ර 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = 𝜇𝑜 𝑖𝑐 + = 𝜇𝑜 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑
𝑑𝑡

𝑉 𝑡=0
• Displacement Current(𝑖𝑑 ) exists in time varying
electric field.
 Conduction Current and Displacement Current

• For loop 1: 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑖 & 𝑖𝑑 = 0 𝑟 𝑟

𝜇𝑜 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
1 2

• For loop 2: 𝑖𝑐 = 0 & 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖

𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝜇𝑜 𝑖
𝐵. 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 ⇒ 𝐵=
𝑑𝑡 2𝜋𝑟

𝑉 𝑡=0

• For this case 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑖𝑑 .

 Maxwell’s Equations

Unification of theories of electricity & magnetism when fields are varying with time.

Gauss’s Law for Electrostatics Gauss’s law for Magnetism

𝑞
ර 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = ර 𝐵 . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 0
𝜀0

Faraday’s law of EMF Ampere – Maxwell law

𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑑𝜙𝐸
ර 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = − JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
ර 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑐 + 𝜀0 𝜇0
𝑑𝑡 (1831-1879) 𝑑𝑡
 In charging a parallel plate capacitor of capacity 10 𝜇𝐹, rate of change of potential is
100 𝑉/𝑠. If plate area of the capacitor is 10 × 10−2 𝑚2 , then find:
T (a) Average conduction current at that time.
(b) Average displacement current at that time.

Given: 𝑑𝑉 To find: 𝑖𝑐 & 𝑖𝑑

= 100 𝑉/𝑠 𝐴 = 10 × 10−2 𝑚2
𝑑𝑡

Solution: (a) Charge on a capacitor, (b) Displacement Current,

⇒ 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑖𝑑
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀𝑜 ⇒ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜
𝑞 𝑞
Conduction Current, Electric Flux ⇒ 𝜙𝐸 = .𝐴 =
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑉
𝑖𝑐 = =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Differentiating 𝜙𝐸 w.r.t. ‘𝑡′
𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑖
⇒ = So, we have
𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜
𝑖𝑐 = 10−3 𝐴

𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖𝑐 = 10−3 𝐴
Given: 𝑑𝑉 To find: 𝑖𝑐 & 𝑖𝑑
= 100 𝑉/𝑠 𝐴 = 10 × 10−2 𝑚2
𝑑𝑡

Solution: (a) Charge on a capacitor, (b) Displacement Current,

⇒ 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑖𝑑
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀𝑜 ⇒ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜
𝑞 𝑞
Conduction Current, Electric Flux ⇒ 𝜙𝐸 = .𝐴 =
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑉
𝑖𝑐 = =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Differentiating 𝜙𝐸 w.r.t. ‘𝑡′
𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑖
⇒ = So, we have
𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜
𝑖𝑐 = 10−3 𝐴

𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖𝑐 = 10−3 𝐴
 A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of radius 1 𝑚 has a capacitance of 1 𝑛𝐹.
At 𝑡 = 0, it is connected for charging in series with a resistor 𝑅 = 1 𝑀Ω across a
T 2 𝑉 battery. Calculate the magnetic field at a point 𝑃, halfway between the centre
𝑡
and the periphery of the plates, after 𝑡 = 10−3 𝑠.Take 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑉[1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 ]
Applying modified Ampere’s law at point 𝑃,
𝑟 𝑑𝜙𝐸
𝐵. 2𝜋 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 +𝑞 −𝑞
2 𝑑𝑡
𝑂
𝑞 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑞 𝑟
⇒ 𝜙𝐸 = 2 × =
𝜋𝑟 𝜀𝑜 4 4𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

Displacement Current, 𝑃
𝑑𝜙𝐸 1 𝑑𝑞 1
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀𝑜 = = 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡 4
Current in the circuit at 𝑡 = 10−3 𝑠
𝑡 1 𝑀Ω
−
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 1 − 𝑒 𝜏 ⇒ 𝑖 = 0.37 𝑉/𝑅

Magnetic Field at point 𝑃, 2𝑉

𝑟 𝑖
𝐵 ∙ 2𝜋 = 𝜇𝑜 ⇒ 𝐵 = 0.74 × 10−13 𝑇
2 4
 Sources of EM Waves

• Accelerated motion of a charged particle generates EM Waves.

• Accelerated charged particle produces time varying electric field and it produces time varying magnetic field.

• The oscillating E.F. and M.F. are perpendicular to each other.

• EM waves travel with speed of light in vacuum.

• The energy associated with the propagating wave

comes at the expense of the energy of the source.

• Direction of the propagation of EM wave remains in the

direction of the 𝐸 × 𝐵.
 Direction of Propagation of EM Waves

𝑦 𝑌
𝐵𝑜 𝐸0
𝐵

−𝑋 𝐵0
𝐵
𝐸 𝐸𝑜
𝑍 𝑋
Direction of Propagation 𝑍
𝐸

• Relation in E, B & c.

𝐸𝑜 = 𝐵𝑜 𝑐
 Important Characteristic of EM Waves

• Speed of Electromagnetic wave in vacuum is same as speed of light.

1 𝜇𝑜 : Permittivity of vacuum
𝑐= 𝜀𝑜 : Permeability of vacuum
𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜

𝑐 = 2.99793 × 108 𝑚/𝑠

• Speed of Electromagnetic wave in a medium.

1 𝜇: Permittivity of medium
𝑐=
𝜇𝜀 𝜀: Permeability of medium
 Nature of EM Waves

• EM waves can travel in vacuum and are transverse in nature.

• EM waves can be reflected, refracted or absorbed.

Reflection
Medium-1
𝑣, 𝑓, 𝜆 𝑣, 𝑓, 𝜆

Medium-2
Absorption Refraction
𝑣′, 𝑓, 𝜆′

• Frequency is inherent characteristic of EM waves. When it travels from

one medium to another only its speed and wavelength changes.
 A capacitor of capacitance 𝐶, is connected across an AC source of voltage 𝑉,
given by 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 sin𝜔𝑡. The displacement current between the plates would then
T
be given by

Given: 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 sin𝜔𝑡 To find: 𝐼𝑑

Solution: Charge on the capacitor’s plates

⇒ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉

Differentiating above equation w.r.t. 𝑡

𝑑𝑄 𝑑 𝐶𝑉
⇒ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑄
⇒ = 𝐶𝜔𝑉𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝐼𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜 𝜔𝐶cos𝜔𝑡
 Energy Density

Energy stored in a unit volume (𝑑𝑉) in any electric/magnetic field is known as Energy density.

1
• Energy density in electric field, ⇒ 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2 𝑌
2
𝐸0
𝐵2 𝐸𝑦
• Energy density in magnetic field, ⇒
2𝜇𝑜
𝐵𝑧
• Average Energy density in electric field,
𝐵0

1 2𝜋
𝜔𝑥 𝑍
𝜔 2 2
2 𝑜 ‫׬‬0 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑐 𝑑𝑡
𝜀 𝜀0 𝐸𝑜2
⇒ 2𝜋 = 𝑋
4
‫׬‬0𝜔 𝑑𝑡

• Similar to electric field, average energy density of magnetic field,

2𝜋
1 𝜔 𝐵 2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝜀𝑜 ‫׬‬ 𝑜 𝐵𝑜2
⇒ 2 0 𝑐 =
2𝜋 4𝜇𝑜
𝜔
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡
 Energy Density

• Average energy density in EMW, 𝑌

𝐸0
𝐸𝑦
𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜2 𝐵𝑜2
+
4 4𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑧

𝐵0
We have , 𝐸𝑜 1 𝐵𝑜2
= ⇒ 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜2 =
𝐵𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝑍
𝑋
• Therefore, Average energy density of E.F. is equal to
Average energy density of M.F.

• Average energy density in EMW,

𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜2 𝐵𝑜2
⇒ =
2 2𝜇𝑜
 Intensity of EM Waves

The energy crossing per unit area per unit time

perpendicular to the direction of propagation of 𝑐∆𝑡
wave is called the intensity of wave.

Energy in 1 second
• Intensity =
Area (𝐴)

• Energy passing through cylindrical area 𝐴 𝐴

per unit time:

1 2
𝐵𝑜2
𝑈 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜 × 𝐴 × 𝑐 = ×𝐴×𝑐
2 2𝜇𝑜

𝑈 1 2
𝐵𝑜2
𝐼 = = 𝜀 𝐸 𝑐= 𝑐
𝐴∆𝑡 2 𝑜 𝑜 2𝜇𝑜
 Intensity due to a Point Source

The intensity from a point source obeys the

inverse square law.

𝑃 𝑟
𝐼=
4𝜋𝑟 2

𝐽
• Unit: 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡/𝑚2 or 𝑠 𝑚2
 Poynting Vector

Ԧ
The rate of flow of energy in an electromagnetic wave is described by a vectors 𝑆,
called Poynting vector.

1 𝑌
𝑆Ԧ = (𝐸 × 𝐵)
𝜇𝑜
𝐸

𝐸𝐵 𝐸2 𝑐 𝑆
⇒𝑆= = = 𝐵2 𝐸
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝑐 𝜇o ∵𝐵= 𝑋
𝑐 𝑐
𝐵
• Average of Poynting vector,
𝑍

𝐸𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝐸𝑜2 𝑐 2
𝐼 = 𝑆𝑎𝑣 = = = 𝐵
2𝜇𝑜 2𝜇𝑜 𝑐 2𝜇o 𝑜
 A red LED emits light at 0.1 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 uniformly around it. The amplitude of the electric
T field of the light at a distance of 1 𝑚 from the diode is

Given : 𝑃 = 0.1 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 To Find : 𝐸𝑜

Solution : Intensity at distance r from a source

emitting light,

𝑃
𝐼=
4𝜋𝑟 2

0.1
⇒𝐼= 2
= 1/2𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜2 𝑐
4𝜋1

𝐸𝑜 = 2.45 𝑉/𝑚
 Momentum

• Electromagnetic wave carries energy and momentum with it.

Energy (𝑈) Speed of light (𝑐)

Electromagnetic Wave
𝑈 = ℎ𝑓 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆
De-Broglie
hypothesis
ℎ ℎ𝑐
𝑝= 𝑈=
𝜆 𝜆

𝑈 = 𝑝𝑐
𝑝Ԧ

𝑈
𝑝=
𝑐
 Light with an energy flux of 18 𝑊/𝑐𝑚2 falls on a nonreflecting surface at normal
incidence. If the surface has an area of 20 𝑐𝑚2 , find the average force exerted on the
T surface during a 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 time span.

Given : Energy Flux = 18 𝑊/𝑐𝑚2 𝐴 = 20 𝑐𝑚2 To Find : 𝐹𝑎𝑣 on surface

𝑡 = 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
Solution : Total energy falling on the surface is

𝑈 = 18 × 20 × (30 × 60) = 6.48 × 105 J

Total momentum delivered for complete absorption is

𝑈 6.48 × 105
𝑃= = = 2.16 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
𝑐 3 × 108

Average force exerted on the surface,

𝑃
𝐹= ⇒ 1.2 × 10−6 N
𝑡
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

• In vacuum EM waves exist with different wavelength & frequency but with
same speed.

Visible
(Wavelength in 𝑚)
Gamma X-ray Ultraviolet Infrared Microwave Radio

decreasing frequency

decreasing Energy Visible Light

 Gamma Rays

• Produced by the disintegration of radioactive atomic nuclei.

• Used in medicine to destroy

cancer cells.

Frequency: 1019 𝐻𝑧 – 1024 𝐻𝑧

Wavelength: < 10−11 𝑚

 X - Rays

• Produced when fast moving electrons decelerates inside a metal target.

• Used in medical diagnosis. Harmful to

skin tissues.

Frequency: 1016 𝐻𝑧 – 1020 𝐻𝑧

Wavelength: 10−8 𝑚 − 10−13 𝑚

 Ultraviolet Rays

• Produced by special lamps & very hot bodies. Frequency: 1015 𝐻𝑧 – 1017 𝐻𝑧
These can be absorbed by ordinary glass.
Wavelength: 400 𝑛𝑚 – 1 𝑛𝑚
• Useful for eye surgery, detect skin disease,
water purification etc.

Welder is wearing glass shield

Most of the UV rays coming to avoid large amount of UV
from the Sun are absorbed in produced by welding arcs.
the ozone layer.
 Visible Rays

• It is the part of spectrum that is visible to the Frequency: 4 × 1014 𝐻𝑧 – 7 × 1014 𝐻𝑧

human eye.
Wavelength: 700 𝑛𝑚 – 400 𝑛𝑚
• Yellow colour is most sensitive to human eyes.

VIOLET V 400 𝑛𝑚
INDIGO I 440 𝑛𝑚
BLUE B 470 𝑛𝑚
GREEN G 515 𝑛𝑚
YELLOW Y 560 𝑛𝑚
ORANGE O 620 𝑛𝑚
RED R 700 𝑛𝑚
 Infrared Rays

• Produced by hot bodies and molecules. Hence, they are also known as HEAT WAVES.

• Used in the remote switches of household electronic system.

Frequency: 1012 𝐻𝑧 – 1014 𝐻𝑧

Wavelength: 25 𝜇𝑚 – 2.5𝜇𝑚

• IR rays play an important role in maintaining the

earth’s warmth through the GREENHOUSE EFFECT.
 Microwaves

• They are produced by special vacuum tubes.

• Due to their short wavelengths(compared to

radio waves), they are suitable for the radar
system used in aircraft navigation.

• Microwave oven is an interesting domestic

application of these waves.

Frequency: 3 × 1011 𝐻𝑧 – 1013 𝐻𝑧

Wavelength: 1 𝑚𝑚 – 25 𝑚𝑚
 Radio waves

Frequency: < 3 × 1011 Hz Wavelength: > 1 𝑚𝑚

Amplitude modulated Television Frequency modulated

Heading
Radio Wave 1 Heading
Radio Wave1 Heading
Radio Wave 1

(530 kHz − 1710 kHz) (54 MHz − 890 MHz) (88 MHz − 108 MHz)

• They are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires.

• They are used in radio and television communication system.

 The wave function ( in S.I. units ) for an electromagnetic wave is given as-
T 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 103 sin𝜋(3 × 106 𝑥 − 9 × 1014 𝑡).find the wavelength of the wave?

Given: 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 103 sin𝜋(3 × 106 𝑥 − 9 × 1014 𝑡) To Find: 𝜆

Solution: Comparing given equation with standard equation.

𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 , Therefore

2𝜋
⇒𝑘=
𝜆
2𝜋 2𝜋
⇒𝜆= =
𝑘 3𝜋 × 106

𝜆 = 666 𝑛𝑚
 In an electromagnetic wave, the average energy density is associated with-
T

A Electric field only

B Magnetic field only

C Equally with electric and magnetic fields

D Average energy density is zero

 In an electromagnetic wave, the average energy density is associated with
T magnetic field will be

1 2 𝐵2
A 𝐿𝐼 B
2 2𝜇𝑜

1 𝜇𝑜
C 𝜇o B 2 D
2 2𝐵2
 In an electromagnetic wave, the average energy density is associated
T with magnetic field will be

1 2 𝑞2
A 𝐶𝑉 B
2 2𝐶

1 𝜀2 1
C D 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2
2𝐸 2