Module 5:

Maxwell’s Equations
Scalar product
• If 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 are two vectors and magnitude of the vectors is 𝐴
and 𝐵 respectively, then𝐴𝐵 Ԧ = 𝐴 𝐵 cos 𝜃 is the dot product
of 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵.
• In three dimensional representation scalar product of 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 is
Ԧ 𝐵 = Ax aො x + Ay aො y + Az aො z . Bx aො x + By aො y + Bz aො z =
𝐴.
(Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz )
Cross product
• Let there be two vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵, the interaction of two vectors
result in the production of vector 𝐶Ԧ and 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴 𝐵 sin 𝜃 and 𝐶Ԧ is
perpendicular to the plane containing the directions of 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵.

𝑎ො𝑥 𝑎ො𝑦 𝑎ො𝑧

𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
Vector operation
Flow of energy, heat, liquids, gravity, electromagnetic energy

 is a mathematical operator called del (sometimes as nabla)

The operation is as per the equation
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻= ෝ𝑥 +
𝑎 ෝ𝑦 + 𝑎
𝑎 ෝ 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑎ො 𝑥 , 𝑎ො 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎ො 𝑧 are the base vectors.
 Let T be a scalar function. Then 𝛻T states that 𝛻 acts on T.
There are 3 ways in which 𝛻 can act.

1. On a scalar function 𝛻T called gradient.

(volume, density, speed, energy, mass, time etc…..)

2. On a vector function via the dot product 𝛻.𝐴Ԧ called the divergence.

3. On a vector function via the cross product 𝛻x𝐴Ԧ called the Curl.

(Linear momentum, Acceleration, Displacement,

Momentum,Angularvelocity,Force,Electric field)
Physical significance of divergence
• The divergence of the vector field 𝐸 at a given point is a
measure of how much the field diverges from that point.
Physical significance of curl

• The curl of a vector field 𝐴 at a point P is a measure of how much the field curls
(circulates) around P.
• Let the field be magnetic field 𝐻 around a point P (Fig A, B and C).
• Fig A: the magnetic field vectors curl around P when a current is passed through a
straight conductor.
• Fig B :Magnetic field vectors have larger magnitude all around P - a more rigorous
circulation.
• Fig C: Field vectors have larger magnitude, but they do not have any turning motion :
• 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 0.
Gauss’ law in electrostatics

• Consider a charge q and a closed surface surrounding it called Gaussian surface.

• The closed surface can be considered to be made up of a number of elementary surfaces each
of area dS.
• If 𝐷 is the flux density at dS, then total electric flux over the entire surface is

 = ‫ 𝐷 𝑆ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = q
If there are a number of charges q1, q2, q3, …. inside the surface, then
 = ‫ 𝐷 𝑆ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = σ 𝑞, Hence  = 𝑄 the total charge enclosed.
Gauss’ law for magnetic fields & Maxwell’s equation in magnetostatistics

• Consider a closed surface in a magnetic field.

• Magnetic flux line always follows a closed loop irrespective of how the field is produced.
• For a closed surface in a magnetic field, for every flux line that enters into the surface, there
must always be a flux line emerging out of the surface elsewhere.
• For entire closed surface, total outward flux = total inward flux
• Outward flux is taken as positive flux, inward flux is taken as negative flux.
• Therefore the total flux summed over the entire Gaussian surface = 0.
• In vector form, this aspect can be used to prove 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0→ One of the four Maxwell’s
equation
(where𝐵 is the magnetic flux density).
Ampere’s law

• Consider a point P in a magnetic field 𝐻.

• Inorder to visualize the curl of the magnetic field, imagine a rectangular loop ABCD around P in a
parallel to x-y plane.
• LetJz and a
ො z are the current density and unit vector respectively along z-direction.
• Finding the line integral of 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 over the closed path ABCDA, it is possible to show that
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 1
= 𝐽𝑧 ෝ
az , where subscript-1 for curl H signifies that the curl is in a plane
parallel to x-y plane.
• Similarly, for the curl in a plane parallel to y-z plane, we have
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 2
= 𝐽𝑥 ෝ
ax
• Curl in a plane parallel to x-z plane is
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 3
= 𝐽𝑦ෝ
ay
• 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 1 , 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 3 are the components of the curl of 𝐻 around
the point P.
• 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 is represented as 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽𝑥 ෝ
ax + 𝐽𝑦ෝ
ay + 𝐽𝑧 ෝ
az
• Hence 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽 → Ampere’s circuital law (One of the Maxwell’s equation)
• where 𝐽 is the current density vector with components 𝐽𝑥 , 𝐽𝑦 and𝐽𝑧 along the 3
cartesian coordinates.
Stoke’s theorem
Faraday’s law
It can be stated as “the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in a
circuit is equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
through it, and its direction opposes the flux change”.
• Induced emf e is expressed as 𝑒 = − 𝑑𝑡 , where ϕ is the flux linkage
𝑑𝜙

with the circuit such as a turn in a conducting coil.

𝑑𝜙
• If there are N turns in the coil, then emf is expressed as 𝑒 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Integral and point (or differential) forms of Faraday’s law
 Gauss divergence theorem

The integral of the normal component of the flux density over any closed surface in an
electric field is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of the flux throughout the
space enclosed by the surface.

It is represented mathematically as ‫ 𝐷 𝑆ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = ‫ 𝛻 𝑣׬‬. 𝐷 𝑑𝑣

• Consider a Gaussian surface in a region with certain charge density.
• Inside the surface, consider a differential volume element ∆v.
Let ∆Q be the charge within the element.
Equation of continuity

For direct current in a circuit as shown in the figure, if we consider a closed

surface at some part of it, then we see that the charge flow into the surface is
equal to the charge outflow, which means there is no net charge within the surface
i.e., ∆ . 𝐽Ԧ = 0
It also represents Kirchoff’s current law according to which, the current inflow at
any point in a circuit is equal to the current outflow from the same point.
Considering the ampere’s law under time varying conditions for the field.
The ampere’s law is expressed as 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ
Taking divergence on both sides, we get 𝛻 . 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝛻 . 𝐽
From vector analysis, divergence of curl for any field is always zero,
hence 𝛻 . 𝐽 = 0

This condition holds good for any electrical circuit with current flow under static
conditions. But, it fails under time dependent variation to understand which, we
can consider the following case.
This condition holds good for any electrical circuit with current flow under static
conditions. But, it fails under time dependent variation to understand which, we can
consider the following case.

Consider an ac circuit with a capacitor

Consider a closed surface which encloses only one plate of the capacitor.
It is clear that, whenever there is any current flow into the closed surface, it is not accompanied by a
simultaneous current outflow through any part of the surface (charges pile up on the capacitor’s plate).
The reverse also holds good for the flow of current out of the surface.
For 𝛻 . 𝐽 = 0 to hold good, current inflow must be simultaneously equal to current outflow at any instant of
time. Thus the condition𝛻 . 𝐽 = 0 fails in this case.
Equation of continuity
Consider a closed surface enclosing certain amount of charge.
According to equation of continuity, if there is any charge outflow through
this surface, it must be accompanied by a simultaneous reduction of charge
within the surface.
This can be represented vectorially by applying the divergence theorem that
𝜕𝜌𝑣
𝛻. 𝐽=− → Equation of continuity.
𝜕𝑥

Where 𝐽Ԧ is the current density and 𝜌𝑣 is the charge density.

Displacement current
(Modifictaion of Ampere’s law to suit the time varying condition)
In order to make the ampere’s law to work under time varying field conditions, Maxwell suggested the
following treatment

We know from Gauss’s law that 𝛻. 𝐷 = ρv

Differentiating w.r.t. time, we get

𝜕 𝜕𝜌𝑣
𝛻. 𝐷 =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝜌𝑣
Or 𝛻. 𝜕𝑡
= 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜌𝑣
W.K.T. from the equation of continuity that 𝛻 . 𝐽 = − 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐷
Using the above two equations, we get 𝛻 . 𝐽 = − 𝛻. 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐷
Or 𝛻 . 𝐽 + 𝜕𝑡 = 0
Now it is clear, that for the time varying case, it is not 𝛻 . 𝐽 = 0,
𝜕𝐷
but the equation 𝛻 . 𝐽 +
𝜕𝑡
= 0 must be considered, i.e., 𝐽Ԧ must be
Ԧ 𝜕𝐷
replaced by 𝐽 + .
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷
Ampere’s circuital law in point form becomes 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ + for
𝜕𝑡
time varying field conditions.
This equation is addressed as Maxwell-Ampere’s law.
𝜕𝐷Ԧ
The quantity has the dimensions of 𝐽Ԧ the current density and was
𝜕𝑡
named by Maxwell as displacement current density.
Maxwell’s equations
i. From Gauss’s law in electrostatics,𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 --------------------- (1)
𝜕𝐵
ii. From Faraday’s law, 𝛻 × 𝐸 = − ------------------------ (2)
𝜕𝑡
iii.From Gauss’s law for magnetic field, 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 -------------------(3)
𝜕𝐷
iv.From Ampere’s law, 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ + --------------------- (4)
𝜕𝑡

The above four equations are called as Maxwell’s equations.

In case of static fields, the time dependent factors in the
second and fourth equations vanish. Thus the list is
modified as follows:
i. 𝛻. 𝐷 = ρv ------------------------------- (1)
ii. 𝛻 × 𝐸 = 0 -------------------------- (2)
iii.𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 ------------------------------- (3)
iv.𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ ---------------------------- (4)