Scalar and Vector Fields

Dr. Salma
Gravitational Field

The gravitational field of the Earth is another example of a vector field which can be used
to describe the interaction between a massive object and the Earth.

According to Newton’s universal law of gravitation, the gravitational force between two
masses m and M is given by
𝑀𝑚
𝐹𝑔 =-G 2 𝑟
𝑟
where r is the distance between the two masses and
• 𝑟 is the unit vector located at the position of m that points from M towards m.
• The constant of proportionality G is the gravitational constant
6.67 × 10−11 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2
• From the above expression, we see that the field is radial and points toward the
center of the Earth

Gravitational field of the Earth.

Uniform gravitational field near the surface of the Earth
Electric Fields

Electrostatic force between charges falls off as the inverse square of their distance of
separation, and can be either attractive or repulsive.
Consider an object which has charge Q. A “test charge” that is placed at a point P a
distance r from Q will experience a Coulomb force:
𝑄𝑞
𝐹𝑒 =−𝑘𝑒 2 𝑟
𝑟
where 𝑟 is the unit vector that points from Q to q

The constant of proportionality 𝑘𝑒 = 9.0 × 109 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶 2 is called the Coulomb constant.

 Magnetic Field

Magnetic field is another example of a vector field.

Magnetic field of a bar magnet

The gradient of a function, f(x, y), in two dimensions is defined as:

• The gradient of a function is a vector field.

• It is obtained by applying the vector operator ∇ to the scalar

function f(x, y)
• Such a vector field is called a gradient (or conservative) vector field.

  
  i  j k
x y z
Gradient
f f f
grad f  f  i  j k
x y z
 Gradient (contd.)
Del operator
  
  i  j k
x y z

Gradient
f f f
grad f  f  i  j k
x y z

Gradient characterizes maximum increase. If at a point

P the gradient of f is not the zero vector, it represents
the direction of maximum space rate of increase in f at
P.
For the scalar field ∅ (x,y) = x2sin5y, calculate gradient
of∅
 Gradient of a Scalar field
Gradient characterizes maximum increase. If at a point P the
gradient of f is not the zero vector, it represents the direction of
maximum space rate of increase in f at P.

In vector calculus, the gradient of a scalar field is a vector field

that points in the direction of the greatest rate of increase of the
scalar field, and whose magnitude is the greatest rate of change.
 Interpretation
• Consider a room in which the temperature is given
by a scalar field, T, so at each point (x,y,z) the
temperature is T(x,y,z).
• At each point in the room, the gradient of T at that
point will show the direction the temperature rises
most quickly.
• The magnitude of the gradient will determine how
fast the temperature rises in that direction.
 2 +𝑦 2 )
Gradient of the 2D function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 −(𝑥 is plotted as blue
arrows
 The divergence of a vector field
The divergence computes a scalar quantity from a vector field by differentiation

More precisely, if 𝑎(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a vector function of position in 3 dimensions, that is

𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘

then its divergence at any point is defined in Cartesian co-ordinates by

𝜕𝑎1 𝜕𝑎2 𝜕𝑎3

∇. 𝑎 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Note that the divergence of a vector field is a scalar field

 Interpretation
The divergence of a vector field is the extent to which the vector field flux
behaves like a source at a given point.
It is a local measure of its "outgoingness" – the extent to which there is
more of the field vectors exiting an infinitesimal region of space than
entering it.

• A point at which the flux is outgoing has

positive divergence, and is often called a
"source" of the field.
• A point at which the flux is directed inward has
negative divergence, and is often called a "sink"
of the field.
• The greater the flux of field through a small
surface enclosing a given point, the greater the
value of divergence at that point.
• A point at which there is zero flux through an
enclosing surface has zero divergence.
The divergence of different vector fields
• For a magnetic field:
∇ · 𝐵 = 0,
that is there are no sources or sinks of magnetic
field, a solenoidal filed.
• For an electric field:
∇·E= ρ/ε,
that is there are sources of electric field..
 Physical Interpretation of the Curl
• The curl of a vector field measures the tendency for the
vector field to swirl around

• Consider a vector field F that represents a fluid velocity:

• The curl of F at a point in a fluid is a measure of the rotation

of the fluid.

• ƒIf there is no rotation of fluid anywhere then ∇x F= 0.

• Such a vector field is said to be irrotational. ƒ

• For a 2D flow with F represents the fluid velocity, 𝛁 × 𝑭 is

perpendicular to the motion and represents the direction of
axis of rotation
Maxwell equations in free space