1

Lovely Professional University

Punjab
Study Material
for
Engineering Physics
Course code: 109
Prepared by:
21703: G. Joshva Raj
June 13, 2018
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Contents

1 Electromagnetic Theory 5
1.1 Scalar and Vector fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Vector calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.4 Gauss-divergence theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.5 Stoke’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Dielectric constant or Permittivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.2 Poisson’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.3 Laplace’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.4 Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.5 Ampere’s circuital law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.6 Maxwell’s equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

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4 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Electromagnetic Theory

1.1 Scalar and Vector fields

Scalar: Scalar is defined as a characteristic which characterizes the property
of magnitude only. Quantities which have only magnitude and do not have any
direction are called scalar quantities.
Examples: Different type of potentials such as electric, magnetic, gravitational,
etc., different kind of senses such as smell, taste, heat, etc., head ache.
Note: Magnitude can be defined as the measure of any physical quantity, prop-
erty, phenomena, process, etc.

Vector: Vector is a characteristic which characterizes the properties of both

magnitude and direction. Quantities which are having both magnitude and di-
rection are called vector quantities.
Examples: Motion of an aeroplane, electric field, blood pressure.

Scalar field: A scalar field is defined as a region (not a point) which have a
numerical value for a scalar function at every point on it.
Example: height of a massif
The massif in Fig. 1.1, has different height at different point in its region. Since
height is a scalar quantity, the height of the given massif can be treated as
a height (scalar) field. If φ be the height of a mountain in the massif, then
φ(x, y, z) defines a scalar field.
Note: If the scalar value is constant over a particular region, it can be treated
as a point, though the region satisfies the condition for a scalar field.

Vector field: A vector field can be defined as a region which possess a nonzero
numerical value for any property with direction on its every point.
Example: direction of wind
Fig. 1.2 represents a vector field. The wind may have different direction with
different magnitude.

5
6 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

Figure 1.1: Himalayas: chain of mountains (massif) with different heights.

Courtesy: http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2015/12/mountain-names/

Figure 1.2: Direction of wind: wind vector

Courtesy: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gl)/guides/maps/upa/wndvct.rxml

1.2 Vector calculus

∇ (del) operator: The ∇ operator is defined as follows:

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = ~i + ~j + ~j (1.1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Note: The ∇ operator is not a vector, but acts as a vector.

1.2.1 Gradient
Let γ(x, y) be a 2-D scalar function. Assume that the scalar field is not uniform
and the scalar value varies with respect to position. Consider a point P(x,y)
on the scalar field. Gradient of a scalar function at the point P(x,y) is de-
fined as the vector from the point P(x,y) that gives the direction in which the
scalar function varies maximum and the magnitude of variation. Thus gradient
represents a vector in a scalar field.
1.2. VECTOR CALCULUS 7

Figure 1.3: Temperature (scalar) field: γ(x, y, z) represents the temperature

function in the region. γ1 , γ2 , γ3 , γ4 denote temperatures at different point in
the region.

Note: Gradient is the vector counterpart of scalar derivative (dy/dx).

Note: The concept of gradient is valid for 3-D also.

The gradient of a scalar function at a particular point can be obtained by

operating (multiplication) the operator ∇ on the later (scalar function). Let
φ(x, y, z) be a scalar function. The gradient of φ can be obtained as
 
~i ∂ + ~j ∂ + ~j ∂ φ(x, y, z), (1.2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
which defines a vector.

Example:
Consider a temperature field (scalar field) as shown in Fig. 1.3. Let φ(x, y, z)
be the function which defines temperature in the given region. φ1 , φ2 , φ3 ,
φ4 denote the value of temperature at four different points and assume that
temperature at all other points is same as φ1 . Now, the gradient vector at the
point γ1 is towards γ3 with a magnitude of 100 C.
The gradient of temperature in the considered region at the point (x,y,z) can
be calculated by ∇γ which is equal to
 
~i ∂γ + ~j ∂γ + ~j ∂γ (1.3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Eq. 1.3 represents the gradient (vector) of the scalar function γ at the point
(x,y,z) in the given region. It gives the direction at which temperature (scalar)
varies maximum and gives the magnitude of variation.
8 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

~ is defined as the net flow of electric field across

Figure 1.4: The divergence of E
a given surface.

1.2.2 Divergence
Let F~ be a vector function which defines a vector field in a given volume V.
Divergence of the vector field F~ can be defined as the measure of the net flow
of the vector quantity through a closed surface. Thus, divergence of a scalar
quantity which is measured in a vector field. If the net flow of the vector
quantity is more than that of the amount that enter into the surface, then the
surface is said to be a source. On the other hand, if the net flow is less than
the amount that enters into the surface, then the surface can be called as sink.
In both cases, the vector field is compressive in nature. If the vector field is
incompressive, then the divergence would be zero.
Divergence of a vector quantity F~ = fx~i + fy~j + fz~k can be obtained as
taking dot product between the ∇ operator and the vector field F~ as follows:

 
~ F~
∇. = ~i ∂ + ~j ∂ + ~j ∂ .fx~i + fy~j + fz~k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂fx ∂fy ∂fz
= + + (1.4)
∂x ∂y ∂z
~ F~ gives the divergence of the vector field~F .
∇.

Example
Consider a point positive charge Q+ as shown in the Fig. If another positive
charge q+ is placed in the vicinity of Q+ , there will be a force of repulsion and
the electric field radiates towards outside. On the other hand, if a negative
charge q− is placed in the vicinity of Q+ , then there will be a force of attraction
1.2. VECTOR CALCULUS 9

Figure 1.5: Example of curl: Maelstrom in water.

Courtesy: http://tophdimgs.com/411627-maelstrom.html

and the electric field points towards the parent charge. In these cases, diver-
gence can be defined as the net flow electric field across a closed region. In
both cases, the net flow of electric field is not zero so that electric field is not
incompressive. In the former case, the charge Q+ acts as a source of electric
field since it radiated electric field outwards. In the latter case the charge Q+
acts as a sink for electric field, because electric field flow inwards.

Note: The concept of flux originates from the concept of divergence.

1.2.3 Curl
Let F~ be a vector function which represents a vector field. The curl of the
vector F~ can be defined as the tendency of the same to to make a rotation at
any point in the vector field. The rotational motion is also represented by a
vector. Thus, curl of a vector field gives another vector. The curl of a vector
F~ can be calculated by taking cross product between the ∇ ~ operator and F~ as
follows:

 
~ × F~
∇ = ~i ∂ + ~j ∂ + ~j ∂ × (fx~i + fy~j + fz~k) (1.5)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Example
Maelstrom: Fig. 1.5 shows a maelstrom in water. The water flow which is a vec-
tor field makes a rotation at the specified point due to some internal dynamics.
Such type of motion requires two vectors, one for forward direction and another
one for rotational motion. The rotational motion of vector field F~ is called curl
10 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

of vector F~ .

~ makes no rotation at a given point, then ∇

Note: If a vector field ∇ ~ ×F = 0
and the vector filed is said to be irrotational.

1.2.4 Gauss-divergence theorem

Gauss-divergence theorem is used to convert a surface integral into volume in-
tegral and vice-versa. Let F~ be a function which is defined in a given surface
S and V be the volume enclosed by the surface S. The mathematical form of
Gauss-divergence theorem is as follows:

Z Z
~
F~ .dS = ~ F~ dV,
∇.
S V
Z Z or Z Z Z
F~ .n̂ds = ~ F~ dV.
∇. (1.6)
S V

Taking integral of a given vector function over a given surface is equivalent

to taking integral of divergence of the function over the volume and vice-versa.

1.2.5 Stoke’s theorem

Stoke’s theorem is used to convert a line integral of a closed curve into a surface
integral which the curve encloses and vice-versa. The mathematical form of the
theorem is as follows:

I Z
~
F~ dl = ~
(∇ × F~ )ds
c s
I or Z Z
~
F~ dl = ~
(∇ × F~ )ds (1.7)
c s

1.3 Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Theory

1.3.1 Dielectric constant or Permittivity
The ability of matter to resist electric field to penetrate through it is called
electrical premittivity. Permittivity of materials varies with respect to their
atomic structure. The permittivity of vacuum is 1 and the permittivity of air
is slightly higher than 1. Electric permittivity can also be termed as dielectric
constant and its unit is F/m (Farad/meter). Materials with higher permittivity
value can be used to increase the capacitance of a capacitor.
1.3. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 11

1.3.2 Poisson’s equation

The Gauss law is given by

~ D
∇. ~ = ρ, (1.8)
~ = E
where D ~ is the electric displacement vector and ρ is the charge density.
~ can be written as −∇V
E ~ . Eq. 1.8 becomes

∇2 V = −ρ/ (1.9)
Eq. 1.9 is called Poisson’s equation.

1.3.3 Laplace’s equation

If there are no charges in a given region, Eq. 1.9 becomes

~ 2 V = 0.
∇ (1.10)
Eq. 1.10 is called Laplace’s equation.

1.3.4 Continuity equation

Current density vector
The current density vector J~ can be defined as the current that passes through
a unit area per unit time. Thus, by integrating the current density vector J~
over the entire surface, we can get the total current as follows:
I
I= ~ S
J.d ~ (1.11)
S
Note: Electric current density is a vector quantity where electric current is a
scalar.

Equation of continuity
The current can also be defined as
dq
I= , (1.12)
dt
where q is the total amount of charge and t is the time. The total amount of
charge q can be related to the charge density as follows:
Z
q= ρdV (1.13)
V
Using Eq. 1.13, Eq. 1.12 can be written as
Z
dq ∂ρ
I= = dV (1.14)
dt V ∂t
12 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

From Eqs. 1.11 and 1.14, we can get

I I
~ S ~ ∂ρ
J.d = dV (1.15)
S V ∂t

Using Gauss-divergence theorem, the LHS of Eq. 1.15 can be converted into
volume integral as follows:
I Z
~ S
J.d ~=− ~ JdV
∇. ~ (1.16)
S V

The negative sign is kept in Eq. 1.16 since the current diverge out.
From Eqs. 1.15 and 1.16, we can get
Z Z
~ ~ ∂ρ
∇.JdV = − dV (1.17)
V V ∂t

Removing integrals,

~ J~ + ∂ρ = 0
∇. (1.18)
∂t
Eq. 1.18 is called continuity equation.

1.3.5 Ampere’s circuital law

Consider a straight current carrying wire. Let the current in the wire be I.
Due to the current, there will be a magnetic field produced around the wire.
Consider a circle which is having the conducting wire as its axis. According to
~ at any point on the circle is given by
Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field B

µ0 2I
B= , (1.19)
4π r
where µ0 is the magnetic permeability of free space and r is the distance between
the current carrying wire and the point P. Now, the magnetic field over the entire
circle can be calculated as

I I
~ ~l = µo 2I ~
B.d dl
4π r
I I
~ ~l = µo 2I
B.d d~l
4π r
I
~ ~l = µo 2I
B.d 2πr
4π r
I
~ ~l =
B.d µ0 I (1.20)

Eq. 1.20 is the Ampere’s circuital law.

1.3. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 13

1.3.6 Maxwell’s equations

Maxwell’s first equation in differential form

Consider a three dimensional dielectric medium of surface S which encloses

a volume V and having a charge density ρ is placed in an electric field E.~
According to Gauss theorem, the electric flux over the closed surface can be
calculated as
Z Z
~ S
E.d ~= 1 ρ dv. (1.21)
S 0 V

Due to the applied electric field, the charges in the dielectric medium are polar-
ized. The charges are moving away from a given point and it can be represented
~ P~ where P~ is the polarization vector. Since the charges move away from a
by ∇.
given point, the charge density decreases by ∇.~ E.~ Hence, the net charge density
is given by
~ P~ .
ρt = ρ − ∇. (1.22)

Using Gauss-Divergence theorem, the LHS of Eq. 1.21 can be converted

from surface integral into volume integral as follows:
Z Z
~ S
E.d ~= ~
∇.E dV. (1.23)
S V

Equating Eq. 1.21 and Eq. 1.23, we can get

Z Z
~ 1 ~ P~ ) dV.
∇.E dV = (ρ − ∇. (1.24)
V 0 V

Z Z
~
∇.0 E dV = ~ P~ ) dV.
(ρ − ∇. (1.25)
V V

Z Z
~ 0E
∇.( ~ + P~ )dV = ρ dV (1.26)
V V

Since D~ = 0 E
~ + P~ is the electric displacement vector, Eq. 1.26 can be
written as
Z Z
~ D
∇. ~ dV = ρ dV (1.27)
V V

Since the above integral is valid for any arbitrary volume, the integrals can
be removed from both sides of Eq. 1.27 and we get

~ D
∇. ~ = ρ. (1.28)
14 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

Maxwell’s first equation in integral form

Using Gauss-divergence theorem, the LHS of Eq. 1.27 can be written as follows:
Z Z
~ D
∇. ~ dV = ~ S
D.d ~ (1.29)
V S

Eq. 1.27 becomes Z Z

~ S
D.d ~= ρ dV (1.30)
S V

On integrating the charge density ρ over the volume, we can get the total
amount of charges in the volume Q.
Eq. 1.30 becomes
Z
~ S
D.d ~=Q (1.31)
S

Maxwell’s second equation in differential form

The second law of Maxwell’s equation is related to magnetic field. The magnetic
lines of force started from the north pole and ended in the south pole. There
are no monopoles in magnetic materials. However much magnetic lines passes
through a given surface, exit the surface as it is. Hence, the flux of magnetic
field across any closed surface is zero. This is the Gauss’ law of magnetism and
can be written mathematically as follows:

~
divB = 0,
~ B
∇. ~ = 0. (1.32)

Eq. 1.32 represents Gauss’ law of magnetism and constitutes the Maxwell’s
second equation.

Maxwell’s second equation in integral form

Taking integral of Eq. 1.32 over the volume, we can get
Z
~ B)dV
(∇. ~ = 0. (1.33)
V

Using Gauss-Divergence theorem, the LHS of Eq. 1.33 can be converted into
surface integral as follows:
Z I
~ B)dV
(∇. ~ = ~ S.
B.d ~ (1.34)
V S

Eq. 1.34 is the integral form of Gauss’ law of magnetism.

1.3. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 15

Maxwell’s third equation in differential form

Consider a magnet which is changing its position continuously. Due to the
change in flux φ, an emf will be produced in a closed surface in the vicinity of
magnetic field. According to Faraday’s law, the emf can be calculated as

∂φ
emf = − (1.35)
∂t
where φ is the magnetic flux which is given by
Z
φ= ~ S.
B.d ~ (1.36)
S

Combining Eqs. 1.35 and 1.36, we get

I ~
∂B
emf = − ~
.dS. (1.37)
S ∂t
emf can also be defined as the work done requires to carry a unit charge
around a closed loop and is given as
I
emf = ~ ~l
E.d (1.38)
C

The line integral in the RHS of eq. 1.38 can be converted into a surface
integral using Stoke’s theorem as follows:
I Z
~ ~
E.dl = (∇ ~ × E)d
~ S.~ (1.39)
C S

From Eqs. 1.37, 1.38, 1.39, we can get

Z I ~
∂B
~ × E)d
(∇ ~ S ~=− ~
dS. (1.40)
S S ∂t
Removing the integral on both sides, we get

~
~ ×E
∇ ~ = − ∂B (1.41)
∂t
Eq. 1.41 is the differential form of maxwell’s third equation.

Maxwell’s third equation in integral form

~ we can get
On integrating Eq. 1.41 over the surface S,
Z Z ~
∂B
~ × E).d
(∇ ~ S ~=− ~
dS (1.42)
S S ∂t
Converting the surface integral in the RHS of Eq. 1.42 into line integral
using Stoke’s theorem,
16 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

Z I
~ × E).d
(∇ ~ S ~= ~ ~l
E.d (1.43)
S C

Equating Eqs. 1.42 and 1.43

I Z
~ ~l = − ∂
E.d ~ S
B.d ~ (1.44)
C ∂t S

Eq. 1.44 is the integral form of maxwell’s third equations.

Maxwell’s fourth equation in differential form

The Ampere circuital law is given by
I
B. ~ = µ0 I
~ dl (1.45)

~ can be related to magnetic field strength H

The magnetic field B ~ by

~
~ = B
H (1.46)
µ0
Eq. 1.45 becomes
I
H. ~ =I
~ dl (1.47)
C

The relationship between electric current I and current density vector J~ can
be written as
Z
I= ~ S
J.d ~ (1.48)
S

Using Stoke’s theorem, the LHS of Eq. 1.47 can be converted into surface
integral as follows:
I Z
~ ~l =
Hd ~ × H).d
(∇ ~ S ~ (1.49)
C S

Equating Eqs. 1.48 and 1.49

Z Z
~ × H).d
(∇ ~ S ~= ~ S
J.d ~ (1.50)
S S

Removing the integrals,

~ ×H
∇ ~ = J~ (1.51)
1.3. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 17

Correction in Ampere’s circuital law

To describe varying electric fields, take divergence of Eq. 1.51

~ ∇
∇.( ~ × H)
~ = ∇.
~ J~ (1.52)
LHS of Eq. 1.52 is zero because divergence of curl of a vector is always zero.

~ J~
0 = ∇. (1.53)
But, according to continuity equation,

~ J~ = − ∂ρ
∇. (1.54)
∂t
The Eq. 1.53 for varying electric fields which is derived from Ampere’s
circuital law contradicts with continuity equation 1.54. Hence, Eq. 1.51 is
needed to be modified. For this purpose, a hypothetical current density vector
is added to Eq. 1.51 as follows:

~ ×H
∇ ~ = J~ + J~0 (1.55)
Taking divergence

~ J~ + ∇
0 = ∇. ~ J~0 (1.56)

~ J~0 = −∇.
∇. ~ J~ (1.57)

~ J~0 = ∂ρ
∇. (1.58)
∂t
According to Maxwell’s first equation,

~ D
ρ = ∇. ~ (1.59)

Using Eq. 1.59, Eq. 1.58 becomes

~ J~0 = ∂ (∇.
∇. ~ D)
~ (1.60)
∂t

~
∇. ~ ∂D
~ J~0 = ∇. (1.61)
∂t
Using Eq. 1.61, Eq. 1.55 becomes

~
∇ ~ = J~ + ∂ D
~ ×H (1.62)
∂t
Eq. 1.62 is the differential form of Maxwell’s fourth equation.
18 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

Maxwell’s fourth equation in integral form

On integrating Eq. 1.62 over surface
!
Z Z ~
∂D
~ × H).d
(∇ ~ S ~= J~ + ~
.dS (1.63)
S S ∂t

Converting the LHS of Eq. 1.63 into line integral using Stoke’s theorem
!
Z Z
∂ ~
D
~ ~l =
H.d J~ + ~
.dS (1.64)
C S ∂t