Simple examples of the gradient of a scalar field Let' s start by considering

the temperature in room that has a fireplace (or some other heating source)
in one part of the room and some open windows scattered around the room.
We will learn in Chapter 13 (partial differential equations) how we can solve
such problems analytically, but for now, we just need to focus on the fact
that the temperature in the room will vary from one place to another. In
other words, the temperature in the room will depend on its (x, y , z)
coordinates. We can express this as: T = T x, y, z This is a scalar field since
temperature is a scalar quantity. Imagine now a very temperature sensitive
(and slow moving) fly that is moving through the room. When the fly will
measure some temperature when it is at an initial position x1, y1, z1. As
the fly moves to another position in the room labeled as x2, y2, z2), the fly
will measure a change in temperature. This change in temperature will occur
because the fly has changed positions in x, y, and z, and also because the
temperature changes from one position in the room to another. You learned
in multivariable calculus that you can describe the total change in
temperature between two points close to each other, dT, by: (1) dT = ∑T ∑x dx
+ ∑T ∑y dy + ∑T ∑z dz Now, let' s examine eq. (1) more closely. The right -
hand side consists of a sum of three products; this pattern is becoming
familiar to us. The right - hand side of eq. (1) is reminiscent of a dot product
of two vectors. The two vectors that produce the scalar product on the right
side of eq. (1) are : (2) ∑T ∑x x ` + ∑T ∑y y ` + ∑T ∑z z ` and dx x ` + dy y ` + dz z
`  or that the total change in temperature between two positions is : (3) dT
= ∑T ∑x x ` + ∑T ∑y y ` + ∑T ∑z z ` ÿ dx x ` + dy y ` + dz z `  Let's see what each
of the terms on the right side of eq. (3) mean. We can understand the term in
the second parentheses by recalling the definition of the position vector, i.e.,
the vector from the origin to a point in (x, y, z) space: r = x x (4) ` + y y` + z z `
Therefore, the vector representing an increment of displacement from (x, y, z)
to (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) is written as : (5) dl = dx x ` + dy y ` + dz z ` this is
called the infinitesimal displacement vector and the symbol dl is often
reserved to describe this vector. Therefore, we see that the second term in
eq. (3) is just an increment of displacmement along a line from the origin to
our point of measurement. The first term on the right side of eq. (3) is the
gradient of the temperature field and is represented by the symbol “T, so we
can write dT from eq. (3) as: (6) dT = “T ÿ dl We can recast eq. (6) using the
basic definition of the dot product : (7) dT = “T ÿ dl = —T d l cos q Now, if we
set the magnitude of dl to some specific value, say for specificity one, then
the largest value of dT will occur when q=0 so that cos q = 1; this means that
the largest value of dT will occur when “T and dl lie in the same direction.
This allows us to see that the direction of the gradient vector represents the
direction of the maximum change of the parameter we are studying (in this
case, the temperature of the room). Additionally, the magnitude of the
gradient, | “T | is the rate of change of T in the direction of maximum
change. Ex. 1: Suppose the function that describes the temperature at any
point in the room is given by: T x, y, z = 100 cos (8) x 10 sin y 10 cos z then
the gradient of T is : (9) “T = ∑T ∑x x ` + ∑T ∑y y ` + ∑T ∑z z ` = -10 sin x 10 sin y
10 cos z x ` + 10 cos x 10 cos y 10 cos z y ` - 100 cos x 10 sin y 10 sin z z ` Eq. (9)
tells us that if we are at the point in the room (10 p, 10 p, p), that the
direction of greatest change in temperature is : (10) “T = 0 x ` - 10 y ` + 0 z ` or
in the minus y direction, and that the rate of change of temperature at this
point is the magnitude of the gradient,
Gauss Law

"The total normal electric flux over a closed surface in an electric field is equal to   times the total charge enc

Mathematically it may be expressed as

............(1)

Where q is the net charge enclosed by the surface and ε o is the permittivity (of free space) of the medium

Proof of Gauss law of electrostatics (Integral Form):

Consider a source producing the electric field E is a point charge +q situated at a point O inside a volume enclosed by
where the electric field produced by the charge +q is E. if E is along OP and area vector dS is along the outward draw

The electric field strength E at the point P is given by

.............(2)

Then the electric flux over the surface, therefore

........(3)

 (Solid angle)
Equation (3) becomes

or

..........(4)

Equation (4) represents Gauss law (in integral form) for electrostatics for a single point charge (in integral form). 

Gauss law in Differential Form

Using divergence Theorem ( Relates volume integral of divergence of a vector field to surface integral of the vector fi

.....(5)

Using Equation (4)

........(6)

and Let a charge q be distributed over a volume V of the closed surface S and p be the charge density; then 

or

Substituting the value of net charge in terms of charge density, equation (6) becomes

Or

....(7)
 or

....(8)

Equation (7) and (8) represent Gauss Law in differential form

Differential form of Gauss law states that "the divergence of electric field E at any point in space is equal to 1/ε0 ti

The line integral of electric field around a closed loop is equal to the voltage generated in that loop
(Faraday's law):

Such an integral is also used for the calculation of voltage difference since voltage is work per unit
charge. Calculating the voltage difference near a point charge is a good example.

The line integral of a force over a path is equal to the work done by that force on the path.

surface Integral

An area integral of a vector

function E can be defined as
the integral on a surface of
the scalar product of E with area Index
element dA. The direction of the
area element is defined to be
perpendicular to the area at that
point on the surface.
The outward directed surface
integral over an entire closed
surface is denoted

It is appropriate for such physical

applications as Gauss' law.

 
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Line Integral
 Vector functions such as electric
field and magnetic field occur in physical
applications, and scalar products of these
vector functions with another vector such as
distance or path length appear with
regularity. When such a product is summed
over a path length where the magnitudes
and directions change, that sum becomes
an integral called a line integral.

A line integral is also used for the general

definition of work in mechanics.

Stokes theorem
The Stoke’s theorem states that “the surface integral of the curl of a function over a surface
bounded by a closed surface is equal to the line integral of the particular vector function around
that surface.” The line integral around S (the boundary curve) of F’s tangential component is
equal to the surface integral of the normal component of the curl of F.

The positively oriented boundary curve of the oriented surface S will be ∂S.

This classical declaration, along with the classical divergence theorem, fundamental theorem of
calculus, and Green’s theorem are exceptional cases of the general formulation specified above.
This means that:

If you walk in the positive direction around C with your head pointing in the direction of n, the
surface will always be on your left.

S is an oriented smooth surface bounded by a simple, closed smooth-boundary curve C with

positive orientation.

Line integral
A line integral is integral in which the function to be integrated is determined along a curve in
the coordinate system. The function which is to be integrated may be either a scalar field or a
vector field. We can integrate a scalar-valued function or vector-valued function along a curve.
The value of the line integral can be evaluated by adding all the values of points on the vector
field.
Line Integral Formula
The line integral for the scalar field and vector field formulas are given below:

Line integral Formula for Scalar Field

For a scalar field with function f: U ⊆ Rn → R, a line integral along with a smooth curve, C ⊂ U is
defined as:

∫C f(r) ds =

f[r(t)] |r’(t)| dt
Here, r: [a, b]→C is an arbitrary bijective parametrization of the curve.

r (a) and r(b) gives the endpoints of C and a < b.

Line integral Formula for Vector Field

For a vector field with function, F: U ⊆ Rn → Rn, a line integral along with a smooth curve C ⊂ U, in
the direction “r” is defined as:

∫C F(r). dr =

F[r(t)] . r’(t)dt.
Here, “.” represents the dot product.

Volume integral
The volume of a three-dimensional region V is simplpy V = R
V dV . We shall now express it in terms of a surface integral
over S. FIG. 7: A general volume V containing the origin and
bounded by the closed surface S. 30 Let us suppose that the
origin O is contained within the V . Then the volume of the
small shaded cone is dV = 1 3 r · dS. The total volume of the
region is then given by V = 1 3 I S r · dS This expression is still
valid even when O is not contained in V