MA156 - Mathematical Methods for Physical Sciences

Conservative vector fields

Contents
1 Introduction

2 Gradient and directional derivative

2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2
2
4

3 Conservative fields
3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Properties of conservative fields . . .
3.3 Potentials of conservative vector fields
3.3.1 Integral method . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Differential method . . . . . .

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4 Stokes theorem
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 The curl of a vector field . . . . . . . .
4.3 Stokes theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Stokes theorem and conservative fields.

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5 Divergence and Divergence theorem

15

6 Physical Applications of the divergence theorem

6.1 Divergence and the sources of vector fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Divergence and Conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Divergence and electrostatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16
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MA156 - Conservative vector fields

1 Introduction
Vector fields are extremely useful to describe forces. Some of these, like the gravitational or the
electrostatic force, have a very important property: it is possible to associate an energy to them. A
stone held on the top of a mountain has a certain gravitational potential energy that can be transformed
into kinetic energy by letting it drop. It is clear that the vector field that describes the gravitational
force is somewhat peculiar, it must have some additional properties with respect to a generic vector
field. The purpose of these notes is to explain very briefly what are the characteristics that differentiate
the gravitational field from a generic vector field to which it is not possible to associate a potential
energy.
In order to do this we must introduce an approach to vector fields that is the complement of
what we have done until now. To understand this point consider, for the moment, a real function of
one real variable, f (x), with a x b. The study of the properties of this function can be carried
out in two ways: the integral of a function f (x) over an interval a x b requires the knowledge
of the function over the entire interval and gives global properties of the function, for example its
average value. The derivative of a function, instead, requires only a local knowledge of the function
and gives only local information: knowing the first derivative of a function at a point x0 allows us to
approximate the function in a small neighbourhood of x0 but does not gives us any information on the
values of the function away from that point. The global (integration) and the local (differentiation)
approaches are not unrelated: as a matter of fact the fundamental theorem of calculus states that the
derivative is (very roughly) the inverse of the integral.
The same two approaches can be used to study vector fields. Until now we have used the global
approach and we have defined the line and surface integrals of vector fields. In order to study the
properties of conservative vector fields we must also introduce the local approach and try to define
differentiation operations that can either produce a vector field by acting on a scalar function f (x, y, z)
(such operation is called the gradient) or that act directly on vector fields (these two operations are
called the curl and the divergence of the vector field).
We are now going to introduce the gradient of a scalar function and use it to define a special
class of vector fields called conservative vector fields. We then show that these fields possess all the
properties of the gravitational force field, namely that it is possible to associate a potential energy
to them. Finally we will use the two other differential operations on vector fields, the curl and the
divergence, to find some easy methods to identify whether a vector field is or is not conservative and
to write conservation laws as partial differential equations.

2 Gradient and directional derivative

2.1 Definition
Given a function of two or more variables, f (x, y) for example, we define the directional derivative
of f at the point x0 = (x0 , y0 ) in the direction of the unit vector n as
f (x0 + n) f (x0 )
f
= lim
.
n 0

The geometrical interpretation of the directional derivative is that it represents the slope of the graph of
f (x, y) when we move from the point (x0 , y0 ) in the direction indicated by the vector n (see Figure 1).
Example Evaluate the directional derivative of f (x, y) = sin(x + y 2 ) in the direction of v = i + 2j
at (0, 0).

MA156 - Conservative vector fields

f(x,y)

n
x
f

Figure 1: The directional derivative in the direction of the unit vector n is the slope of the graph of the function
in the direction of n. The gradient of f , f , points in the direction of maximum slope. The line orthogonal to
the gradient is a level line of the graph.

In order to compute the directional derivative we need a unit vector,

n=

1
v
= (i + 2j) .
|v|
5

The partial derivative of f (x, y) at the origin in the direction of n is

f [(0, 0) + n] f (0, 0)
f (/ 5, 2/ 5) f (0, 0)
f
= lim
= lim
=
0
n 0

1
sin(/ 5 + 4/52 ) 0
lim
= .
0

5
The geometrical interpretation of the directional derivative suggests that to describe the derivative
of a function of two or more variables we need two pieces of information: the slope of the graph
and the direction along which this slope is measured. In other words, a complete description of the
derivative of a function of two or more variables entails the use of a vector. It turns out that a most
sensible and useful vector is the gradient of the function defined as
f =

f
f
f
i+
j+
k
x
y
z

(1)

for a function f (x, y, z). The symbol is called grad or nabla and you can think of it as a vector
operator
=

i+
j+
k
x
y
z

that acts on the function f (x, y, z) to give Equation (1).

MA156 - Conservative vector fields

Example - Evaluate sin(x + y 2 ).

sin(x + y 2 ) =

sin(x + y 2 )i +
sin(x + y 2 )j = cos(x + y 2 )i + 2y cos(x + y 2 )j.
x
y

2.2 Properties
The knowledge of the gradient of a function allows us to compute all the directional derivatives in a
straightforward manner. Provided that the function f is differentiable then the directional derivative
of f in the direction of the unit vector n is given by
f
= f n,
n

|n| = 1.

(2)

This relation allows us to find the geometrical meaning of the gradient of a function: it points in
the direction of steepest ascent. To show this we can use (2) to write the directional derivative of a
function f as
f
= f n = |f | |n| cos() = |f | cos(),
n
where is the angle between the gradient and n. The directional derivative, i.e. the slope, is maximal
for = 0, i.e. when n is parallel to f .
On the contrary the surface is level in the directions orthogonal to the gradient: if n is orthogonal
to f then
n f = 0 =

f
= 0.
n

To summarise, the knowledge of the gradient allows us to know all the directional derivatives, the
direction of steepest ascent and the level lines of the function.
Exercise 1 - Show that (f g) = f g + gf .
Exercise
p 2 - Show that the gradient of a function of the radial distance from the origin, f (r), with
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , is equal to
f (r) =

df
r,
dr

where r is a unit vector in the direction of the radius,

xi + yj + zk
.
r = p
x2 + y 2 + z 2
Use this result to show that the gradient of the function (r) = 1/r is equal to
=

r
.
r2

MA156 - Conservative vector fields

3 Conservative fields
3.1 Definition
If (x, y, z) is a differentiable function defined in a domain D it is possible to evaluate its gradient at
every point of the domain D. The gradient of , is a vector, function of the coordinates (x, y, z).
In other words it is a vector field. More formally:
Definition Let (x, y, z) be a differentiable function in a domain D. The vector field F (x, y, z)
defined by
F = (x, y, z)
is called a conservative vector field in D. The function is called a potential for F in D.
Remark - We will see that a conservative vector field can be used to represent a force with an energy
associated to it. The potential of the vector field is the potential energy of the force. The minus sign
used in the definition of conservative field is just a matter of convention: this choice of sign implies
that a body moves under the action of the force from a point of high potential to a point with a lower
value of the potential function.
Example The gravitational force field of a point mass,
F =
is conservative since we can write

km
r,
r2

 
1
.
F =
r

Remark - There are infinitely many potentials that correspond to the same vector field, but they all
differ by a constant. Both 1 (x, y, z) and 2 1 + C, where C is a constant, produce the same
vector field:
1 = 2 = F .
This is consistent with the physical interpretation of the potential as the potential energy of a force:
the only physically important quantity is not the energy associated to a point, but the energy difference
between different points: this is independent of the value of the arbitrary constant,
2 (r 1 ) 2 (r2 ) = [1 (r 1 ) + C] [1 (r 2 ) + C] = 1 (r1 ) 1 (r2 ).
The following theorem completes the analogy between conservative vector fields and forces with
a potential energy. We know form physics that the work done by the gravitational force on a body
that moves from a point with height h1 to a point with height h2 is independent of the path taken
to go from one to the other. Another way of stating this property is that in the absence of friction a
ball rolling down a slide will climb up to exactly the same height it started from (see Figure 2). The
mathematical equivalent of these statements is that the line integral of a conservative vector field is
independent of the path and depends only on the end points.
Theorem Let F be a conservative vector field on a domain D and let be a potential for it, F =
. Let A and B be any two points in D and let c be any curve in D that joins them. Then
Z
F ds = (A) (B).
c

MA156 - Conservative vector fields

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Figure 2: In the absence of friction the ball reaches the same height it started from and its energy is continually
transformed from potential energy to kinetic energy in the downward part of the slope and from kinetic energy
to potential energy in the upward part of it.

Example - The function (x, y) = xy is the potential of the conservative vector field F = =
yi + xj. Call
r(t) the arc of circle of radius 1 centred at the origin that joins A = (1, 0) with
B = (1/ 2, 1/ 2):
r(t) = cos(t)i + sin(t)j,

0 t /4.

The line integral of F along the path r is

Z /4
Z /4
Z
dr
1
F ds =
F [r(t)]
cos(2t) dt = .
dt =
dt
2
r
0
0
The difference of potentials between starting and ending point is


Z
1
1 1
F ds = (A) (B) = (0, 0) ,
= .
2
2 2
r

3.2 Properties of conservative fields

Given a potential it is straightforward to construct a conservative field: we just need to evaluate the
gradient of the potential. The reverse problem, given a vector field can we ascertain whether it is
conservative and, if so, what is its potential, is more involved. In order to solve it we need to discuss
some more the properties of conservative fields.
It is fairly straightforward to say if a field is not conservative. In fact, suppose that F (x, y) =
F1 (x, y)i + F2 (x, y)j is a two dimensional conservative vector field with potential :

F1

F
=

,
=
,

1
x
y
yx
=
F = =

2
F2

F2 = ,
=
.
y
x
xy
The mixed derivatives of are identical,
2
F1
F2
2
=
=
=
.
yx
xy
y
x

(3)

Therefore, if F (x, y) is a conservative two dimensional vector field then (3) must hold. The inverse
of this statement tells us that a field F does not satisfy relation (3) then it cannot be conservative.

MA156 - Conservative vector fields

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Figure 3: Three examples of two dimensional domains: connected (left), simply connected (centre) and not
connected (right).

However, this condition is necessary, but not a sufficient: a vector field can satisfy relation (3) and
still not be conservative.
Example - Verify that the Biot-Savart magnetic field (the field generated by an infinitely long straight
wire),
B(x, y) =

yi + xj
,
x2 + y 2

(x, y) 6= (0, 0),

(4)

does satisfy relation (3). However, this field, like all magnetic fields, is not conservative.
Remark The generalisation of (3) to three dimensions is
F2
F1
=
,
y
x

F1
F3
=
,
z
x

F2
F3
=
.
z
y

(5)

To characterise completely the properties of conservative fields and, ultimately, to find out how
to generalise relations (3) and (5) so that they can give a sufficient criterion to identify a conservative
vector field, we must characterise better the domains over which the fields are defined. We will then
see that the Biot-Savart field, Equation (4) is not conservative because the domain on which it is
defined, the entire (x, y)-plane minus the origin, is not good enough.
We distinguish three types of domains (see Figure 3):
1. Connected domains - A domain D is connected if for every pair of points P and Q in D there
exists a piecewise smooth curve in D from P to Q. In two dimensions a connected domain is
made up of one piece with or without holes.
2. Simply connected domains - A connected domains D is said to be simply connected if every
closed curve in D can be shrunk to a point in D without any part passing out of D. In two
dimensions a domain is simply connected if it is made up of one piece with no holes in it.
3. Not connected domains - All domains that are not connected.
In general, in a simply connected domain
(a) any closed curve in D is the boundary of a surface lying wholly in D.
(b) If c1 and c2 are two curves in D having the same end points, then c1 can be deformed continuously into c2 remaining in D throughout the entire deformation process (see Figure 4).

MA156 - Conservative vector fields

y
B

c2

c1
A
x

Figure 4: In a simply connected domain any curve c1 can be smoothly deformed into another curve c2 with
the same end points.

We are now in a position to characterise in a compete manner the properties of conservative vector
fields:
Theorem - Let D be an open connected domain and let F be a smooth vector field defined in D. The
following statements are equivalent:
(a) F is conservative in D;
R
(b) c F ds = 0 for every piecewise smooth, closed curve in D;
R
(c) Given any two points A and B in D, the line integral of F , c F ds has the same value for all
piecewise smooth curves in D starting at A and ending at B.
Remark 1 - This theorem is the mathematical formulation of some well known properties of forces
with a potential energy. Point (b) states that the gravitational force makes no total work if the starting
point of the trajectory is the same as the end point. Points (c), instead, states that the work done by
the gravitational force is independent of the particle trajectory, but depends only on the starting and
ending point.
Remark 2 - This theorem shows why the Biot-Savart field, Equation (4), is not conservative. Its
integral around a circle of radius a centred at the origin, r(t) = a cos(t)i + a sin(t)j, 0 t 2, is
Z 2
Z
a sin(t)i + a cos(t)j
B ds =
[a sin(t)i + a cos(t)j] dt = 2.
a2
r
0
This theorem is a partial answer to the question: given a vector field how can we know whether
it is conservative? Unfortunately it is not a very simple answer. In order to state whether a field is
conservative we need, for example, to evaluate its line integral on all closed paths contained in D and
verify that it is always zero. We need to find a simpler test to check whether a given field is or is not
conservative. To do this we need to introduce another derivative, the curl of a vector field and use
Stokes theorem.
Before doing this, however, we will discuss how to find the potential of a given conservative vector
field.

MA156 - Conservative vector fields

3.3 Potentials of conservative vector fields

Suppose that the field F (x, y) = F1 (x, y)i + F2 (x, y)j is conservative. There are two methods to
find its potential, i.e. a function (x, y) such that = F .
3.3.1

Integral method

We can use the theorem that say that that the line integral of a conservative vector field on any path c
joining two points P0 = (x0 , y0 ) and P1 = (x1 , y1 ) is equal to the difference of the potentials between
the two points,
Z
F ds = (x0 , y0 ) (x1 , y1 ),
c

to define the potential function. Choose a reference point P0 = (x0 , y0 ) and assign the value of the
potential at this point,
(x0 , y0 ) = C.
The value of the potential at any point P1 = (x1 , y1 ) is
Z
Z
(x1 , y1 ) = F ds + (x0 , y0 ) = F ds + C,
c

(6)

where the line integral is evaluated on any path c that joins P1 with the reference point P0 . Equation (6) defines the function potential at every point (x, y): this function is, by definition, the
potential of the vector field F (x, y).
Example - Find the potential of the conservative vector field F (x, y) = yi + xj.
We choose the origin as the reference point and we set the potential to be equal to an arbitrary
constant C there:
(0, 0) = C.
To evaluate the potential at a generic point P1 = (x1 , y1 ) we choose as path a straight line r(t) from
the origin to the point P1 parametrised by
0 t 1.

r(t) = tx1 i + ty1 j,

The potential is given by
Z

1
dr
F [r(t)]
dt + C =
(x1 , y1 ) = F ds + C =
dt
r
0
Z 1
(ty1 i + tx1 j) (x1 i + y1 j) dt + C = x1 y1 + C.
0

3.3.2

Differential method

The potential (x, y) of the conservative field F (x, y) = F1 (x, y)i + F2 (x, y)j must satisfy the two
differential equations

= F1 (x, y),
x

= F2 (x, y).
y

(7)
(8)

MA156 - Conservative vector fields

10

We can integrate (7) with respect to x, considering y as a parameter. Its solution is

Z
(x, y) = F1 (x, y) dx + (y),

(9)

where (y) is the integration constant: notice that it is constant with respect to x, but may still be a
function of the other variable y. We can now substitute (9) into (8) to obtain an ordinary differential
equation for (y):
Z

d
F1 (x, y) dx.
= F2 (x, y) +
dy
y
Example - Find the potential of the conservative field F = yi + xj.
We are looking for a function (x, y) such that

= y,
x

= x.
y

The solution of the first equation, obtained by integrating over x while considering y as a constant is
(x, y) = xy + (y).
If we substitute this expression for into the second equation we obtain an ordinary differential
equation for (y):
d
d

= x +
= x =
= 0 = (y) = C,
y
dy
dy
where C is an arbitrary real constant. Therefore the potential of the conservative vector field F =
yi + xj is
(x, y) = xy + C,
the same result obtained using the previous method.

4 Stokes theorem
4.1 Introduction
In this section we will discuss how to find a simple condition to determine whether or not a given
vector field is conservative. For example, we know that if a two dimensional vector field, F (x, y) =
F1 (x, y)i + F2 (x, y)j, is conservative then
x F2 = y F1 .

(10)

However, we also know that this condition is not sufficient, per se. A field can satisfy it and yet not
be conservative. Is it possible to generalise Equation (10), so that it is not only necessary, but also
sufficient? The answer is yes and Stokes theorem tells us what we need to do. However, before being
able to answer this question we need to introduce a first derivative of a vector field, the curl of a
vector field.

MA156 - Conservative vector fields

11

4.2 The curl of a vector field

All the derivatives of vector fields are based on the operator , nabla or grad. This symbol can be
considered as a vector operator
=

i+
j+
k,
x
y
z

that acts on functions of (x, y, z). The gradient of a scalar function, for example, is the result of
applying the operator grad to the function itself:



f
f
f

i+
j+
k f (x, y, z) =
i+
j+
k.
f =
x
y
z
x
y
z
This same approach can be used to introduce new derivatives, that instead of differentiating
scalar functions, like f (x, y, z), differentiate vector fields. One of these derivatives is the curl of a
vector field, F (x, y, z).
Definition - The curl of a differentiable vector field F is the vector field F . Equivalent ways of
evaluating this derivative are:



i+
j+
k (F1 i + F2 j + F3 k)
F =
x
y
z


 i
j k 

=  x y z 
 F1 F2 F3 






F1 F3
F2 F1
F3 F2

+j

+k

= i
y
z
z
x
x
y
The curl of a vector field is related to rotation, it measures how the field rotates, swirls at
different points of space. Consider, for example, the rotation of a rigid body with constant angular
velocity, = 0 k. The velocity at a point (x, y, z) is given by
v(x, y, z) = r = y0 i + x0 j.
The curl of this vector field is


 i
j
k 

y z  = k0 [x x y (y)] = 20 k.
v =  x
 y0 x0 0 
The curl of the velocity field is twice the angular velocity of the rigid body.

MA156 - Conservative vector fields

12
y

F=0

Figure 5: A centrally symmetric field has zero curl.

Properties of the curl
1. (gF ) = g( F ) = g F , where g(x, y, z) is a scalar function and F (x, y, z) a
vector field.
2. The curl of a conservative vector field is zero: () = 0.
This property is the three dimensional version of equation (10). It says that if F is a conservative
vector field, i.e. F = , then its curl is zero:
F conservative = F = 0.
Stokes theorem allows us to invert the direction of the arrow, provided that F satisfies some
other properties.
3. The curl of a centrally symmetric field is zero:
F = f (r)r = F = 0.
This results is in line with the interpretation of the curl as a measure of the rotation of a vector
field. A centrally symmetric field does not rotate and its curl is zero (see Figure 5).

4.3 Stokes theorem

We have defined a derivative of a vector field, the curl. Before stating Stokes theorem we need to
specify the surfaces we wish to work with. The first requirement is that the surface is orientable, so
that we can evaluate flux integrals across it. The second requirement is that the surface must have a
boundary, i.e. it must be delimited by a piecewise smooth curve, eventually composed of many bits
and pieces (see Figure 6).
Finally we need to define a positive orientation for the boundary and the vector normal to the
surface. The orientation of the boundary is positive if walking along it the surface is on our left. The

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x
x

Figure 6: A sphere is a surface with no boundary: it is not delimited by a curve. The other two surfaces
have boundaries formed by one piece (centre) or two (right). The inner boundary is traversed in the opposite
direction of the outer boundary.

vector normal to the surface is defined to point upwards. This rules implies that the borders of holes
in the surface are traversed in opposite direction to the outer rim, Figure 6, or that the bases of a
cylinder are traversed in opposite ways, Figure 7. We are now ready to state Stokes theorem and its
two dimension version, Greens theorem.
Theorem (Stokes) Let S be a piecewise smooth, oriented surface in three dimensions, having unit
and boundary c consisting of one or more piecewise smooth, closed curves with positive
normal n
orientation. Then
Z
Z
F ds =
F dS
c

Theorem (Green) Let R be a closed region in the xy-plane whose boundary c consists of one or more
piecewise smooth non self-intersecting closed curves that are positively oriented. If F = F1 i + F2 j
is a differentiable vector field on R then

Z
Z 
F2 F1

dA.
F ds =
x
y
c
R
R
Example - Evaluate S F dS over the hemisphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 , z 0, where F (r) =
yi + xzj + yk.
The boundary of the surface is the circumference x2 + y 2 = a2 , z = 0, (see Figure 8) which can
be parametrised by the curve
r(t) = a cos(t)i + a sin(t)j

0 t 2 .

Stokes theorem states that

Z
Z 2
Z
dr
=
F dS = F ds =
dt F [r(t)]
dt
S
c
0
Z 2
dt [a sin(t)i + a sin(t)k] [a sin(t)i + a cos(t)j]dt = a2
0

Remark - A consequence of Stokes theorem is that the flux of the curl across all the surfaces that
have the curve c(t) as border is the same. Therefore, instead of evaluating the flux of F over
the hemisphere S, we can evaluate the flux across the base B (a much simpler integral) and obtain the
same result:
Z
Z
F dS =
F dS = a2
S

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14

z
S

n
y
r

B
x

Figure 7: The bases of a cylinder are traversed

Figure 8: The flux of F across S is the same

in opposite directions. The vector normal to the

surface points outwards.

as that across B and as the line integral along r.

4.4 Stokes theorem and conservative fields.

When studying conservative fields we have established that a field on a connected domain D is conservative if and only if
I
F ds = 0
c

for all closed paths c in D. This theorem while giving a complete characterisation of a conservative
vector field is rather cumbersome to use: there are infinite closed paths. Stokes theorem allows us to
get around this problem.
If D is a simply connected domain then any closed path c is the border of an orientable surface S.
To each of these surfaces is possible to apply Stokes theorem,
Z
Z
F ds =
F dS.
c

If F = 0 everywhere in a simply connected domain D then

Z
F dS = 0, for all surfaces =
S
Z
F ds = 0, for all closed path = F is conservative.
c

On the other hand we have already stated that if F is conservative then its curl is zero. We
therefore a simple criterion to establish whether a field is conservative:
A vector field F defined on a simply connected domain D is conservative if
and only if
F =0

in D.

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15

For example, the Biot-Savart field,

F =

yi + xj
,
x2 + y 2

(x, y) 6= (0, 0),

is not conservative even though F = 0, because its domain of definition, the xy-plane minus the
origin, is not simply connected.

5 Divergence and Divergence theorem

There are two types of derivatives of a vector field. We have seen the curl, F obtained by taking
the cross product of the grad operator, with a vector field F . By taking the dot product instead, we
obtain a second type of derivative, the divergence: F .
Definition - The Divergence of a differentiable vector field F (x, y, z) is the scalar function F :



i+
j+
k (F1 i + F2 j + F3 k)
F = =
x
y
z
F1 F2 F3
+
+
.
=
x
y
x
While the curl F is a vector, the divergence is a scalar function.
The key to the physical meaning of the divergence of a vector field is given by the divergence
theorem. The divergence theorem relates surface integrals of vector fields to volume integrals of their
divergence. It allows
To get a clearer idea of the physical meaning of divergence.
To express physical laws as relations between derivatives of vector fields.
To find the value of a surface integral by evaluating a volume integral (the latter is usually
simpler than the former).
Theorem - Let F (r) be a a vector field defined in a volume V . Let S be the orientable surface that
encloses the volume V . If F (r) is differentiable in V then
Z
Z
F dV =
F dS .
V

In words, the volume integral of the divergence is equal to the flux of the vector field.
Example - Evaluate the flux of the vector field F (x, y, z) = yi across the sphere of radius one centred
at the origin and compare the result with the volume integral of the divergence of F .
The sphere is represented by the vector function
r(, ) = cos() sin()i + sin() sin()j + cos()k,

0 2, 0 .

The surface element is

dS = [cos() sin()i + sin() sin()j + cos()k] sin()dd.

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The flux of F = yi is
Z
Z
F dS =
F [r(, )] dS =
S
S
Z 2
Z
d
d [sin() sin()i] [cos() sin()i + sin() sin()j + cos()k] sin() =
0
0
Z 2
Z
d
d cos() sin() sin3 () = 0.
0

On the other hand the divergence of F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k is

F1 F2 F3
y
+
+
=
= 0,
x
y
z
x

F =

so that the volume integral of the divergence is

Z
Z
F dV =
0 dV = 0
V

as stated by the divergence theorem.

6 Physical Applications of the divergence theorem

6.1 Divergence and the sources of vector fields
The divergence of a field is associated with the sources and the sinks of the field (see Figure 9). A
source is a region in space from which field lines flow outward (for example, the neighbourhood of a
positive charge or a source of water). A sink is a region of space where the field lines converge to
(for example, the neighbourhood of a negative charge or a hole where water disappears).
Consider a small region in a vector field . The volume integral of the divergence is approximately:
Z
F dV ' F V ,
V

where V is the volume of the small region. The divergence theorem states that the value of the
divergence is related to the flux across the surface of the region:
Z
Z
Z
F dV =
F dS = F V '
F dS .
V

The field flows outward form a source, its flux is positive and so is its divergence. The field flows
inward towards a sink, its flux is negative and so is its divergence. A positive value of the divergence
is associated to the sources of the field, a negative one to its sinks. In other words, the divergence of a
vector field is a measure of the inflow or outflow of the field from a small region of space.

6.2 Divergence and Conservation laws

The divergence of a vector field is an extremely useful tool to express conservation laws. The total
mass of fluid contained in a volume V can change only if there is a mass outflow or inflow across the

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Source

Sink

Positive Divergence

Negative Divergence

Figure 9: Field lines and equipotential for two equal and opposite point charges. The divergence is negative
around the negative charge (sink), positive around the positive one (source).

surface S that delimits the volume. This statement can be expressed in integral form as:
d
(Mass inside V ) = (Mass outflowing through S) =
dt Z
Z

+ (v) dS = 0 ,
V t
S
where (r, t) is the mass density of the fluid and v(r, t) is the speed of a fluid particle at the point
r = xi + yj + zk. This relation involves integrals. It can be put in a differential form (an equation
that contains only derivatives of the field), by making use of the divergence theorem:
Z
Z
(v) dS =
(v)dV .
S

The mass conservation law becomes:

Z 
V

+ (v) dV = 0
t

This relation must hold for all volumes V . This is possible only if the integrand itself is zero:

+ (v) = 0 .
t
This equation is the mass conservation law expressed in differential form. It shows that the divergence
of a field is usually associated with a conserved quantity. For example, an equation exactly analogous
to this expresses the charge conservation law in electromagnetism.

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6.3 Divergence and electrostatic

Gauss law states that the flux of the electric field across a closed surface S is equal to the charge
contained in the volume V enclosed by the surface:
Z
Z
1
(r)dV =
E dS ,
0 V
S
where (r) is the charge density and E(r) is the electric field. This equation can be put in differential
form by applying the same procedure as in the previous example:

Z
Z
Z 
(r)
E dS =
EdV =
E dV = 0
0
S
V
V
This relation must hold for all volumes. This is possible only if the integrand is zero:
E =

0

This is the first of Maxwells equations. This equation can be written in a simpler form: since the
electrostatic field E is conservative, E = , we can rewrite Maxwells equation as an equation
for the potential, . The advantage of doing so is that only scalar functions appear in it, instead of
vectors.
() =

0

2 =

0

Poissons equation

where the symbol 2 (called Laplacian) means

2 =

2 2 2
+ 2 + 2.
x2
y
z

The equation for the potential in absence of charges, = 0, is

2 = 0

Laplace equation

These last two equations appear in many branches of physics, from the theory of elasticity, to electromagnetism, to quantum mechanics.