V.

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 Mathematics has thousands of branches, and each branch means something
different to every person. Some may know it as a useful tool that is key to getting
civilizations rolling. Others may just see it as bothersome and a tough grade in a
class. Still, math is an important part of everyone's life and can be related to even
the smallest part of life. Calculus is one of the c hief topics in mathematics.

There are 2 different fields of calculus. The first subfield is called differential
calculus. Using what is known as derivatives, it studies the behavior and rate of how
different quantities change. Using the process of differentiation, the graph of a
function can be computed, analyzed, and predicted. The second subfield is called
integral calculus. Integration is the reverse process of differentiation, concerned
with the concept of the anti-derivative. Either a concept or at least semblances of it,
has existed for centuries already. Even though these 2 subfields are generally
different from each other, these 2 concepts are linked by the fundamental theorem of
calculus.

Calculus has many practical uses will be that discussed in this research, but
let’s first consider some important concepts and basics related to calculus.

Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus and the process of finding a

derivative is called differentiation; In mathematics, the derivative of a function of real
variable measures the sensitivity to a change of the function value (output value)
concerning a change in its argument (input value), For example, the derivative of the
position of a moving object concerning time is the object's velocity: this measures
how quickly the position of the object changes when time advances.

The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value, when

it exists, is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. The
tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value. For
this reason, the derivative is often described as the "instantaneous rate of change", the
ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of th e independent
variable.

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 Derivatives can be generalized to functions of several real variables. In this
generalization, the derivative is reinterpreted as a linear transformation whose graph
is (after an appropriate translation) the best linear approximation to the graph of the
original function. The Jacobian matrix is the matrix that represents this linear
transformation concerning the basis given by the choice of independent and dependent
variables. It can be calculated in terms of the partial derivatives concerning the
independent variables. For a real-valued function of several variables, the Jacobian
matrix reduces to the gradient vector.

A function of a real variable f(x) is differentiable at a point an of its domain

if its domain contains an open interval I containing a, and
the limit exists.

Let f be a function that has a derivative at every point in its domain. We can
then define a function that maps every point x to the value of the derivative of f at
x. This function is written f′ and is called the derivative function or the derivative
of f. Sometimes f has a derivative at most, but not all, points of its domain. The
function whose value at a equals f′(a) whenever f′(a) is defined and elsewhere is
undefined is also called the derivative of f. It is still a function, but its domain may
be smaller than the domain of f. Using this idea, differentiation becomes a function
of functions; The derivative is an operator whose domain is the set of all functions
that have derivatives at every point of their domain and whose range is a set of
functions. If we denote this operator by D, then D(f) is the function f′. Since D(f) is
a function, it can be evaluated at point a.

By the definition of the derivative function, then D(f(a)) equals f′(a). For
comparison, consider the doubling function given by f(x) = 2x; f is a real-valued
function of a real number, meaning that it takes numbers as inputs and has numbers
as outputs:

1↦2, 2↦4, 3↦6.

Operator D, however, is not defined by individual numbers. It is only defined by
functions:

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 Because the output of D is a function, the output of D can be evaluated at a
point. For instance, when D is applied to the square function, x ↦ 2x, D outputs the
doubling function x ↦ 2x, which we named f(x). This output function can then be
evaluated to get f(1) = 2, f(2) = 4, and so on.

Let f be a differentiable function and let f′ be its derivative. The derivative

of f ′ (if it has one) is written f ′′ and is called the second derivative of f. Similarly,
the derivative of the second derivative, if it exists, is written f ′′′ and is called
the third derivative of f. Continuing this process, one can define, if it exists, the nth
derivative as the derivative of the (n−1)th derivative. These repeated derivatives are
called higher-order derivatives. The nth derivative is also called the derivative of
order n and is denoted f ^(n).

If x(t) represents the position of an object at time t, then the higher -order
derivatives of x have specific interpretations in physics. The first derivative of x is
the object's velocity. The second derivative of x is acceleration. The third derivative
of x is the jerk. And finally, the fourth through sixth derivatives of x are snap,
crackle, and pop; most applicable to astrophysics. The inflection point is a point
where the second derivative of a function changes sign is called an inflection po int.
At an inflection point, the second derivative may be zero, as in the case of the
inflection point x = 0 of the function given by f(x) = x^3, or it may fail to exist, as
in the case of the inflection point x = 0 of the function given by x^(1/3). At an
inflection point, a function switches from being a convex function to being a
concave function or vice versa.

We know that differentiation is the process of finding the derivative of the

functions and integration is the process of finding the antiderivative of a function.
So, these processes are inverse of each other. So, we can say that integration is the
inverse process of differentiation or vice versa. The integration is also called anti -
differentiation.

In Math, integration is a method of adding or summing up the parts to find

the whole. It is a reverse process of differentiation, where we reduce the functions
into parts. This method is used to find the summation on a vast scale. Calculating
small addition problems is an easy task that can do manually or by using calculators.

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But for big addition problems, where the limits could reach even infinity, integration
methods are used.

Integration is the calculation of an integral. Integrals in Math are used to find

many useful quantities such as areas, volumes, displacement, etc. When we speak
about integrals, it is related to usually definite integrals. The indefinite integrals are
used for antiderivatives.

If d/dx (f(x)) = f(x) then ∫ f(x)dx = f(x). In words, If the derivative of f(x) is f(x),
then we say that an indefinite integral of f(x) concerning x is f(x).

For example, since the derivative (concerning x) of x^2 is 2x, we can say that an

indefinite integral of 2x is x^2.

In symbols:

d/dx(x^2) = 2x, so ∫ 2x.dx = x^2

Note that we say an indefinite integral, not the indefinite integral. This is because
the indefinite integral is not unique. In our example, notice that the derivative of
x^2 + 3 is also 2x, so x^2 + 3 is another indefinite integral of 2x. If c is any
constant, the derivative of x^2 + c is 2x and so x^2 + c is an indefinite integral of
2x.

We express this in symbols by writing:

∫ 2x = x^2 + c

where c is what we call an “arbitrary constant”. This means that c has no specified
value but can be given any value we like in a particular problem. In this way , we
encapsulate all possible solutions to the problem of finding an indefinite integral of
2x in a single expression.

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The Graphical Meaning of the integral is the area under the
curve, where:

- ∫ f(x)dx = c + ∫ f(x)dx
- area under a curve from y-axis to x = a is ∫ f(x)dx∣x = a

- Area above the x-axis (shown in green) is positive.

- Area below the x-axis (shown in purple) is negative.
- Area traversed in the positive x direction (shown in green) is positive.
- Area traversed in the negative x direction (shown in red) is negative.

Calculus can be used all over in real life. Physics, engineering, economics,
statistics, and medicine are all professions that involve calculus. It is used to create
mathematical models to arrive at an optimal solution. For example, calculus is used
in many of its concepts in physics. Physical concepts that use concepts of calculus
include motion, electricity, heat, light, harmonics, acoustics, astronomy, and
dynamics. Even advanced physics concepts including electromagnetism and
Einstein's theory of relativity use calculus. In chemistry, calculus can be used to
predict functions such as reaction rates and radioactive decay. Meanwhile, in
biology, it is utilized to formulate rates such as birth and death rates. In economics,
calculus calculates marginal cost and revenue, enabling economists to predict
maximum profit in a specific setting. In addition, it is used to check answers for
different mathematical disciplines such as statistics, analytical geometry, and
algebra.

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 The most common use of calculus in Astronomy and Physics is to find the
rate at which the position of a moving body changes over time. The laws of
planetary motion used most by astronomers to study and calculus orbits are derived
using Calculus.

Some engineers directly use calculus in their daily practice and some use
computer programs based on calculus that simplifies engineering design. Two
methods of calculus, differentiation, and integration are particularly useful in the
practice of engineering and are generally used for optimization and summation,
respectively.

1. Civil Engineering:

Many aspects of civil engineering require calculus. Firstly, derivation of the

basic fluid mechanics equations requires calculus. For example, all hydraulic
analysis programs, which aid in the design of storm drain and open channel systems,
use calculus numerical methods to obtain the results. In hydrology, volume is
calculated as the area under the curve of a plot of flow versus time and is
accomplished using calculus.

2. Structural Engineering:

In structural engineering, calculus is used to determine the forces in

complex configurations of structural elements. Structural analysis relating to seismic
design requires calculus. In a soil structure context, calculations of bearing capacity
and shear strength of soil are done using calculus, as is the determination of lateral
earth pressure and slope stability in complex situations.

3. Mechanical engineering:

Many examples of the use of calculus are found in mechanical engineering,

such as computing the surface area of complex objects to determine frictional forces,
designing a pump according to flow rate and head, and calculati ng the power
provided by a battery system. Newton's law of cooling is a governing differential
equation in HVAC design that requires integration to solve.
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 As a social science, economics analyzes the production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services. The study of economics requires the use of
mathematics to analyze and synthesize complex information. Using mathematics
allows economists to form meaningful, testable propositions about complex subjects
that would be hard to express informally.

Calculus is the mathematical study of change. Economists use calculus to

study economic change whether it involves the world or human behavior. Calculus is
widely used in economics and can solve many problems that algebra cannot. In
economics, calculus is used to study and record complex information - commonly on
graphs and curves. Calculus allows for the determination of a maximal profit by
providing an easy way to calculate the marginal cost and marginal revenue. It can
also be used to study supply and demand curves.

Calculus is the study of both the infinitesimally small and the infinitely
large. Differential calculus studies the very small; derivatives look at the behavior of
a function at two points that are very close to each other and how that function
changes between those two points (or more simply, derivatives are a way to
represent a rate of change). This forces one to consider what kinds of changes
happen on an infinitesimally small scale. These kinds of changes are common in
biology and medicine; tiny changes in medicine (such as pH, drug concentration,
etc.) can affect large changes in the health of a patient. Integral calculus (and the
more general field of infinite series) is concerned with the very large; integrals are
based on adding up an infinite number of small pieces to yield a bigger picture. In
medicine, this leads to the ability to think of the body as the sum of many smaller
pieces namely the different systems, organs, tissues, etc., and to consider their
effects. Overall, the study of variations and how different variables changing can
change an overall system has useful applications in medicine. This is exactly the
function of calculus. For example, calculus was used to develop the Cockroft -Gault
equation, which determines the appropriate drug dosage for patients with certain
kidney diseases based on the level of creatinine in their bl ood. Equations like this
are invaluable to physicians and could not exist without an understanding of
calculus.

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 In thinking about the relationship between calculus and statistics, many
people think first about integration and differentiation, cumulative and densities, and
areas and slopes. One quickly realizes that calculus doesn’t provide much insight.
“Area” and “slope” are intuitive, elementary concepts. Inde ed, much calculus
pedagogy relies on areas and slopes to motivate derivatives and integrals. Beyond
that, the algebraic techniques of calculus courses (e.g., x 2 → 2x) don’t get traction
against the common distributions of statistics (e.g., the normal and t distributions).

Put aside for a moment the methods for differentiation and integration and
think about the tools and language one needs to describe relationships among
variables. Calculus and statistics both center on models of relationships:
constructing them, analyzing them, and evaluating them. In calculus, the choice to
add a term to a model reflects some knowledge or hypothesis about the mechanism.
In statistics, choices are based on evidence provided by data. These are
complementary perspectives with a shared foundat ion in mathematical modeling.

1. Quick calculus: A Self-Teaching Guide.

https://books.google.com.eg/books?id=12h6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover
&dq=basics+of+calculus&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=basics%2
0of%20calculus&f=false

2. Learning Basic Calculus: From Archimedes to Newton to Its Role in Science .

https://books.google.com.eg/books?id=EHfWqnNXg1YC&printsec=frontcover
&dq=basics+of+calculus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjFg62koYj9AhWcVqQ
EHcNoDPgQ6AF6BAgJEAI#v=onepage&q=basics%20of%20calculus&f=false

3. practical treatise on differential and integral calculus with some of its

applications to Mechanics and Astronomy.
https://books.google.com.eg/books?id=LhNtkzT0aQgC&printsec=frontcover&
dq=astronomy+and+calculus&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=astron
omy%20and%20calculus&f=false

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4. Mathematical Tracts On Physical Astronomy, The Figure Of The Earth,
Precession And Nutation, And The Calculus Of Variations.
https://books.google.com.eg/books?id=oBoStjBEAHcC&printsec=frontcover&
dq=astronomy+and+calculus&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=astron
omy%20and%20calculus&f=false

5. Calculus and Statistics.

https://books.google.com.eg/books?id=9UP_AwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover
&dq=statistics+and+calculus&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=statist
ics%20and%20calculus&f=false

6. Introduction to Integral Calculus: systematic studies with Engineering

applications for beginners.
https://books.google.com.eg/books?id=9UP_AwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover
&dq=statistics+and+calculus&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=statist
ics%20and%20calculus&f=false

7. Calculus for Business, Economics, and the social and life Sciences.
https://books.google.com.eg/books?id=9UP_AwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover
&dq=statistics+and+calculus&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=statist
ics%20and%20calculus&f=false

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