A report submitted to the

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

College of Engineering
University of Duhok

Table of contents
 Topics Page
1 Inequality 2
2 Functions and types of functions 4
3 Common Type of Functions 4
4 Limits 9
5 Rules of Derivatives 13
6 Rules of Integrals 15
7 Applications 17
8 References 18

Inequality

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Inequality tells us about the relative size of two values.
Mathematics is not always about "equals", sometimes we only know that something is greater or
less than.
Equations and inequalities are both mathematical sentences formed by relating two expressions
to each other. In an equation, the two expressions are deemed equal which is shown by the
symbol (=).

x=y
 x is equal to y

Where as in an inequality, the two expressions are not necessarily equal which is indicated by the
symbols: >, <, ≤ or ≥.

x>y
x is greater than y

x≥y
x is greater than or equal to y

x<y
x is less than y

x≤y
x is less than or equal to y

An equation or an inequality that contains at least one variable is called an open sentence.
When you substitute a number for the variable in an open sentence, the resulting statement is
either true or false. If the statement is true, the number is a solution to the equation or inequality.

Example
Is 3 a solution to this equation?
5x + 14 = 245x + 14 = 24
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Substitute 3 for x
5⋅3 + 145⋅3 + 14
5 + 14 = 29 ≠ 245 + 14 = 29 ≠ 24
FALSE!
Since 29 is not equal to 24, 3 is not a solution to the equation.

Example
Is the following inequality true or false?
x – 4 > 12, x = 13x – 4 > 12, x = 13
13 – 4 > 1213− 4 > 12
13 – 4 + 4 > 12 + 413 – 4 + 4 > 12 + 4

13 > 16 → false 13 > 16 → false

y + 5 < 13, y = 6y + 5 < 13, y = 6
6 + 5 < 136 + 5 < 13
6 + 5 – 5 <13 – 56 + 5 – 5 < 13 − 5

6<8→ true

Functions and types of functions

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Function, in mathematics, an expression, rule, or law that defines a relationship between one
variable (the independent variable) and another variable (the dependent variable). Functions
are ubiquitous in mathematics and are essential for formulating physical relationships in the
sciences. The modern definition of function was first given in 1837 by the German
mathematician Peter Dirichlet:
If a variable y is so related to a variable x that whenever a numerical value is assigned to x,
there is a rule according to which a unique value of y is determined, then y is said to be a
function of the independent variable x.
This relationship is commonly symbolized as y = f(x). In addition to f(x), other abbreviated
symbols such as g(x) and P(x) are often used to represent functions of the independent variable x,
especially when the nature of the function is unknown or unspecified.

Common Type of Functions

Many widely used mathematical formulas are expressions of known functions. For example, the
formula for the area of a circle, A = πr2, gives the dependent variable A (the area) as a function of
the independent variable r (the radius). Functions involving more than two variables also are
common in mathematics, as can be seen in the formula for the area of a triangle, A = bh/2, which
defines A as a function of both b (base) and h (height). In these examples, physical constraints
force the independent variables to be positive numbers. When the independent variables are also
allowed to take on negative values—thus, any real number—the functions are known as real-
valued functions.

The formula for the area of a circle is an example of a polynomial function. The general form for
such functions is:
P(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2+⋯+ anxn,
where the coefficients (a0, a1, a2,…, an) are given, x can be any real number, and all the powers
of x are counting numbers (1, 2, 3,…). (When the powers of x can be any real number, the result
is known as an algebraic function.) Polynomial functions have been studied since the earliest
times because of their versatility—practically any relationship involving real numbers can be
closely approximated by a polynomial function. Polynomial functions are characterized by the
highest power of the independent variable. Special names are commonly used for such powers
from one to five—linear, quadratic, cubic, quartic, and quintic.

Polynomial functions may be given geometric representation by means of analytic geometry.

The independent variable x is plotted along the x-axis (a horizontal line), and the dependent
variable y is plotted along the y-axis (a vertical line). The graph of the function then consists of
the points with coordinates (x, y) where y = f(x). For example, the graph of the
cubic equation f(x) = x3 − 3x + 2 is shown in the figure.

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Another common type of function that has been studied since antiquity is the trigonometric
functions, such as sin x and cos x, where x is the measure of an angle (see figure). Because of
their periodic nature, trigonometric functions are often used to model behavior that repeats, or
“cycles.” Non-algebraic functions, such as exponential and trigonometric functions, are also
known as transcendental functions.

Complex Functions

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Practical applications of functions whose variables are complex numbers are not so easy to
illustrate, but they are nevertheless very extensive. They occur, for example, in electrical
engineering and aerodynamics. If the complex variable is represented in the form z = x + iy,
where i is the imaginary unit (the square root of −1) and x and y are real variables (see figure), it
is possible to split the complex function into real and imaginary parts: f(z) = P(x, y) + iQ(x, y).

Inverse Functions
By interchanging the roles of the independent and dependent variables in a given function, one
can obtain an inverse function. Inverse functions do what their name implies: they undo the
action of a function to return a variable to its original state. Thus, if for a given function f(x) there
exists a function g(y) such that g(f(x)) = x and f(g(y)) = y, then g is called the inverse function
of f and given the notation f−1, where by convention the variables are interchanged. For example,
the function f(x) = 2x has the inverse function f −1(x) = x/2.

Other Functional Expressions

A function may be defined by means of a power series. For example, the infinite series

could be used to define these functions for all complex values of x. Other types of series and
also infinite products may be used when convenient.

Graph of functions

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 Limits
Let’s first start off with the following “definition” of a limit.
We say that the limit of f(x) is L as x approaches a and write this as
lim f ( x )=L
x→ a

provided we can make f(x) as close to L as we want for all x sufficiently close to a, from both
sides, without actually letting x be a.
The definition given above is more of a "working” definition. This definition helps us to get an
idea of just what limits are and what they can tell us about functions.
So just what does this definition mean? Well let’s suppose that we know that the limit does in
fact exists. According to our “working” definition we can then decide how close to L that we’d
like to make f(x). For sake of argument let’s suppose that we want to make f(x) no more that
1.1 away from L. This means that we want one of the following:

f ( x )−L< 0.001 If f(x) is larger than L

L−f ( x ) < 0.001 If f(x) is smaller than L

Now according to the “working” definition this means that if we get x sufficiently close to, we
can
make one of the above true. However, it actually says a little more. It actually says that
somewhere out there in the world is a value of x, say X, so that for all x’s that are closer to a than
X then one of the above statements will be true.
This is actually a fairly important idea. There are many functions out there in the work that we
can make as close to L for specific values of x that are close to a, but there will other values of x
closer to a that give functions values that are nowhere near close to L. In order for a limit to exist
once we get f(x) as close to L as we want for some x then it will need to stay in that close to L
(or
get closer) for all values of x that are closer to a. We’ll see an example of this later in this
section.
In somewhat simpler terms the definition says that as x gets closer and closer to x = a (from both

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sides of course…) then f(x) must be getting closer and closer to L. Or, as we move in towards
x = a then f(x) must be moving in towards L.
It is important to note once again that we must look at values of x that are on both sides of x = a.
We should also note that we are not allowed to use x = a in the definition. We will often use the
information that limits give us to get some information about what is going on right at x = a, but
the limit itself is not concerned with what is actually going on at x = a. The limit is only
concerned with what is going on around the point x = a. This is an important concept about limits
that we need to keep in mind.
An alternative notation that we will occasionally use in denoting limits is

f (x)→L as x→a

How do we use this definition to help us estimate limits? We do exactly what we did in the
previous section. We take x’s on both sides of x = a that move in closer and closer to a and we
plug these into our function. We then look to see if we can determine what number the function
values are moving in towards and use this as our estimate.

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Let’s work an example.
Example 1: Estimate the value of the following limit.

lim x 2+ 4 x−12
x→ 2

x 2−2 x
Solution:
Notice that I did say estimate the value of the limit. Again, we are not going to directly compute
limits in this section. The point of this section is to give us a better idea of how limits work and
what they can tell us about the function.
So, with that in mind we are going to work this in pretty much the same way that we did in the
last section. We will choose values of x that get closer and closer to x=2 and plug these values
into the function. Doing this gives the following table of values.

x f(x) x f(x)
2.5 3.4 1.5 5.0
2.1 3.857142857 1.9 4.157894737
2.01 3.9855074627 1.99 4.0150753774
2.001 3.998500750 1.999 4.001500750
2.0001 3.999850007 1.9999 4.000150008
2.00001 3.9999855000 1.99999 4.000015000

Note that we made sure and picked values of x that were on both sides of x = 2 and that
we moved in very close to x = 2 to make sure that any trends that we might be seeing are
in fact, correct.
Also notice that we can’t actually plug in x = 2 into the function as this would give us a
division by zero error. This is not a problem since the limit doesn’t care what is happening at the
point in question.
From this table it appears that the function is going to 4 as x approaches 2, so

lim x 2+ 4 x−12
x→ 2 =4
x 2−2 x

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Let’s think a little bit more about what’s going on here. Let’s graph the function from the
last example. The graph of the function in the range of x’s that were interested in is
shown below.
First, notice that there is a rather large open dot at x = 2. This is there to remind us that
the function (and hence the graph) doesn’t exist at x = 2.
As we were plugging in values of x into the function, we are in effect moving along the
graph in towards the point as x = 2. This is shown in the graph by the two arrows on the
graph that are moving in towards the point.

When we are computing limits the question that we are really asking is what y value is
our graph approaching as we move in towards x = a on our graph. We are NOT asking
what y value the graph takes at the point in question. In other words, we are asking what
the graph is doing around the point x = a. In our case we can see that as x moves in
towards 2 (from both sides) the function is approaching y = 4 even though the function
itself doesn’t even exist at x = 2. Therefore, we can say that the limit is in fact 4.
So, what have we learned about limits? Limits are asking what the function is doing around
x = a and are not concerned with what the function is actually doing at x = a. This is a good
thing as many of the functions that we’ll be looking at won’t even exist at x = a as we saw in our
last example.

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 Rules of Derivatives

Below is a list of all the derivative rules:

1. Constant Rule: f ( x )=c then f ' ( x )=0

' '
2. Constant Multiple Rule: g ( x )=¿ c . f ( x ) then g ( x )=c . f ( x )

3. Power Rule: f ( x )=¿ x n then f ' ( x )=n x n−1

' ' '

4. Sum and Difference Rule:h ( x )=¿ f ( x ) ± g ( x ) then h ( x ) =f ( x ) ± g ( x )

5. Product Rule: h ( x )=¿ f ( x ) g ( x ) then h' ( x ) =f ' ( x ) g ( x ) ± f ( x ) g' ( x )

f ( x) ' f ' ( x ) g ( x )−f ( x ) g' ( x )

6. Quotient Rule: h ( x )=¿ then h x =
( )
g(x) g ( x )2

7. Chain Rule: h ( x )=¿ f ( g ( x ) ) then h' ( x ) =f ' ( g ( x ) ) g' ( x )

8. Trig Derivatives:

 f ( x )=sin ( x ) then f ' ( x )=cos ( x )

 f ( x )=cos ( x ) then f ' ( x )=−sin ( x )

 f ( x )=tan ( x ) then f ' ( x )=sec 2(x)

 f ( x )=sec ( x ) then f ' ( x )=¿ sec ( x ) tan ( x )

 f ( x )=cot ( x ) then f ' ( x )=¿ −csc 2( x )

 f ( x )=csc ( x ) then f ' ( x )=¿ −csc ( x ) cot ( x )

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 9. Exponential Derivatives:

 f ( x )=ax then f ' ( x )=¿ ln (a) a x

 f ( x )=ⅇ x then f ' ( x )=ⅇ x

 f ( x )=ag ( x ) then f ' ( x )=¿ ln (a) a g ( x ) g' ( x )

 f ( x )=ⅇ g ( x ) then f ' ( x )=ⅇ g ( x ) g' ( x )

10. Logarithm Derivatives:

' 1
 f ( x )=lo ga ( x ) then f ( x )=
ln ( a ) x

' 1
 f ( x )=ln ( x ) then f ( x )=
x

g' ( x )
 f ( x )=lo ga ( g ( x ) ) then f ' ( x )=¿
ln ⁡(a)g( x )

g' ( x )
 f ( x )=ln ⁡(g ( x )) then f ' ( x )=
g( x)

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 Rules of Integrals
Below is a list of all the Integral rules:

1. Power Rule (Complete):

x n+1
n
∫ x ⅆx=¿ n+1
{ +C , ⅈf n ≠−1
ln |x|+C , if n=−1

2. Exponential Functions:

ax
 ∫ a ⅆx=¿
x
+C
ln ⁡(a)

 ∫ e x ⅆx=¿ e x +C

1 ax+b
 ∫ eax+b ⅆx=¿ a e +C

3. Trigonometric Functions:

 ∫ sin ⁡(x) ⅆx=¿ −cos ⁡( x)+C ∫ cos ⁡(x )ⅆx =¿ sin ⁡( x)+C

 ∫ sec 2 (x) ⅆx=¿ tan ( x ) +C ∫ csc 2(x )ⅆx=¿ −cot ( x ) +C

 ∫ sec ( x) tan(x) ⅆx=¿ sec ( x ) +C ∫ csc ⁡(x)cot ⁡( x ) ⅆx=¿ −csc ⁡(x)+C

4. Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

1
 ∫ ⅆx=arcsin ⁡( x )+ C
√ 1−x 2
1
 ∫ ⅆx=arcsec ⁡( x)+C
x √ x 2−1

1
 ∫ ⅆx=arctan ⁡( x)+C
1+ x 2

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 1 1 x
 ∫ ⅆx= arctan( )+C
2
a +x 2
a a

5. Hyperbolic Functions:

∫ sinh ( x) ⅆx=¿ cosh ⁡(x )+ C ∫ −csch ( x) coth ⁡(x ) ⅆx=¿ csch ( x)+C

∫ cosh ( x )ⅆx=¿ sinh( x )+C ∫ −sech ( x ) tanh(x) ⅆx=¿ sech( x )+C

∫ sech2 ⁡( x ) ⅆx=¿ tanh( x)+C ∫ −sech2 ¿ coth ⁡(x)+C

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 Applications

1. Inequalities:

Inequalities are used to compare the relative size of values. They can be used to compare
integers, variables, and various other algebraic expressions
2. Functions:

a function is a binary relation over two sets that associates to every element of the first set
exactly one element of the second set. Typical examples are functions from integers to
integers or from the real numbers to real numbers.
3. Limits:

Measuring the temperature is a limit again as time approaches infinity. Limits are also used

as real-life approximations to calculating derivatives. It is very difficult to calculate a
derivative of complicated motions in real-life situations.

4. Derivatives:

 To calculate the profit and loss in business using graphs.

 To check the temperature variation
 To determine the speed or distance covered such as miles per hour, kilometer per
hour etc.
 Derivatives are used to derive many equations in Physics.
 In the study of Seismology like to find the range of magnitudes of the earthquake.
5. Integrals:

 In Electrical Engineering, Calculus (Integration) is used to determine the exact

length of power cable needed to connect two substations, which are miles away
from each other.
 In Physics, Integration is very much needed. For example, to calculate the Centre
of Mass, Centre of Gravity and Mass Moment of Inertia of a sports utility vehicle.

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  Biologists use differential calculus to determine the exact rate of growth in a
bacterial culture when different variables such as temperature and food source are
changed.

References:

1) Kim Hung, P.: Secrets in Inequalities, vol. 1. Gil Publishing House, Zalau (2007)
2) Larson, C.L.: Problem Solving Through Problems. Springer, New York (1983)
3) Matic, I.: Classical Inequalities. The IMO Compendium Group (2007)
4) Andreescu, T., Enescu, B.: Mathematical Olympiad Treasures. Birkhäuser, Basel (2003
5) Functions and Their Graphs, Jackie Nicholas Janet Hunter Jacqui Hargreaves,
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney, NSW 2006.
6) 9. Bottema, O., et al.: Geometric Inequalities.Wolters-Noordhoff Publishing, Groningen
(1969)

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