CLASS - XII

SUBJECT – MATHEMATICS

INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT

TOPIC:- PROBABILITY

Name:- Palash Kurkute

Roll no.:-

Teachers name :-
Ms.Madhuri Nikam
 BEACON HIGH SCHOOL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my Math’s teacher –

Ms. Madhuri Nikam, as well as our principal Ms. Vishakha Gupta who gave
me the opportunity to do this wonderful project on the
topic.................................................................................,which also helped me in
doing a lot of research work and come to know about so many new things.

Secondly, I would also like to thank my parents for their generous support and
friends who helped me a lot in finishing this project within the given time.

This project would not have come so far without support from the people I
mentioned before. I’m indebted to you all.

I believe that this small project will make a significant impact by inspiring
someone else to continue my research.

Thank you!

Student’s Signature –

Date-
 BEACON HIGH SCHOOL

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that , a student of class

XII has successfully completed the research on the project

under the guidance of

Ms. Madhuri Nikam during the year 2023-24 in partial fulfillment

of Math’s practical examination conducted by CBSE.

Examiner’s Signature Principal’s Signature Teacher’s Signature

 INDEX
 Objective
 Introduction
probability
definition of probability
Terms related to probability

 Probability formula
 Types of probability
Theoretical Probability
Experimental Probability
Axiomatic Probability
 Events in Probability
 Types of event
Complementary events
Independent events
Mutually exclusive events
 Equally Likely Events in Probability
 Complementary Events in Real-life
 Uses of Probability
 CONCLUSION
 OBJECTIVE
 To understand the basic principles and concepts of
probability.
 To explore different types of probability, including
theoretical, experimental, and subjective probability.
 To demonstrate the calculation of probabilities using
appropriate formulas and techniques.
 To conduct experiments or simulations to validate
theoretical probabilities.
 To apply probability concepts to solve problems and
make informed predictions.

INTRODUCTION
Probability is a fundamental concept in mathematics and
plays a crucial role in various fields, including statistics,
decision-making, and everyday life. This project aims to
provide a comprehensive study of probability, exploring its
principles, applications, and significance in different
scenarios. The project will involve theoretical
explanations, practical examples, and data analysis to
enhance the understanding of probability concepts.
Suppose you are playing the game of dart and aiming at
the dartboard at a particular angle. A mathematician with
knowledge of the game observes a few things and says
that the chance of you hitting the brown space is 52%,
blue space is 20%, green space is 28% and yellow space
is 0%
 Definition of Probability:-

 “Probability is a mathematical term for the likelihood that

something will occur. It is the ability to understand and
estimate the possibility of a different combination of
outcomes.” 

Terms related to probability :-

1. Random Experiment: An experiment with a known set

of possible outcomes is called a random experiment if it
cannot be predicted in advance which specific outcome
will occur on a given execution of the experiment.
Random experiments include things like coin tosses, die
rolls, and card draws from a deck.

2. Outcome: The result of any random experiment is called

an outcome. Suppose you tossed a coin and got head(H)
as the upper surface. So, tossing a coin is a random
experiment that results in an outcome ‘head’. 

3. Sample Space: It is a set of all the possible outcomes

for a random experiment. For example - Obtaining a
head or a tail on the tossing of a coin is possible. Thus,
S={H, T}: the Head and Tail are the sample space for
tossing a coin. Similarly, on rolling a die, we can get
either of the following numbers - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Thus, S={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} are the sample space for rolling

a die. 
4. Equally Likely Outcomes: Events with the same
theoretical probability (or likelihood) of occurring are
referred to as equally likely events. For example, the
relative occurrences of Head and Tail on tossing a coin

for a very large number of tosses are equal. So, Head

and Tail are equally likely outcomes that make the
tossing of a coin fair and unbiased if it's to decide
between two options. 

5. Event: In the case of a random experiment, an event

is a set of possible outcomes at a specified condition.
Example - On rolling of a die, 4 is not obtained. This
event is the random experiment that is rolling of a die
whose result is not 4. Thus, this event has 5 possible
outcomes that are 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6. Suppose it's
mentioned that the

event F is equal to obtaining a black card while drawing

a card from a deck of 52 cards. In this case, event F has
26 possible outcomes because there are 26 black
cards, a total that is 13 spades and 13 clubs. 
 Probability Formula
The probability formula is defined as the ratio of
favorable outcomes to the ratio of total outcomes. For
any event (E), this can be shown as

where,

 P(E) is the probability of an event 'E'.

 n(A) is the number of favourable outcomes of an

event 'E'.
 n(S) is the total number of events in a sample space.
 Types of Probability

 Theoretical Probability

It is based on the probability that something will happen.

Theoretical possibilities are primarily based on the concept
of Probability. For example, if a coin is tossed, the chance of
a head-turning up will be 1212.
 
 Experimental Probability

It is based on the basis of test recognition. Test scores can

be calculated based on the number of possible results for
the total number of tests. For example, if a coin is thrown 10
times and heads are recorded 6 times at a time, the
probability of checking heads is 6/10 or 3/5
 
 Axiomatic Probability

The axiomatic approach to probability was introduced by

Russian mathematician Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov,
who lived from 1903 to 1987. He said that there exist three
axioms that can be applied to determine the probability of
any event (E). 

 Kolmogorov's Three Axioms are as follows:-

1. The probability of an event A is always greater or equal
to zero but can never be less than zero.

2. If S is a sample space, then the probability of

occurrence of sample space is always 1. That is, if the
experiment is performed, then it is sure to get one of
the sample spaces.

3. For mutually exclusive events, the probability of either

of the events happening is the sum of the probability of
both the events happening.
 Events in Probability

Assume that event (E) can occur in (r) favorable ways and let (n)
be the total number of ways. Then the probability of an event or
success being achieved is highlighted as;

The probability of an event not occurring or being known as a

failure is set out as follows:

So, now we can say

This means that the sum of all the probabilities for any random
event or test is equal to 1.
 Types of Event

Complementary events:

 If one of two events can happen only if the other

doesn't happen, then the two events are said to be
complementary.
In order to understand the particular type of event, let us
consider a certain example. 
Suppose, for any sample, S, and  E1 are the elements of the
event, and E¯1 are the remaining elements of the sample.
So, this can be simply written as,

 E1= S -  E¯1

Let us suppose that dice are rolled.

Then the sample space S ={1,2,3,4,5,6}.

Now, let us consider that E1 represents the outcome 6 on

the die. 

Then,  E1= {6} and E¯1 = {1,2,3,4,5}.

This implies that, if 6 occurs on the die in a single throw then

1,2,3,4, and 5 can’t occur.

So, taking into consideration all the instances stated above,

we can assume that E¯1 is a complement of the event E1 
 
Independent events:

 If the probability of occurrence of event A is not

dependent on the occurrence of another event B,
then A and B are said to be independent events.
Mutually exclusive events:

 If two events don't have any common point for each

other, then the event is said to be mutually exclusive.
This can be defined as " If the occurrence of one event
excludes the occurrence of another event, then the
event is termed a mutually exclusive event. For
example, when a coin is tossed, you get either a head
or a tail; there is no other way to get both outcomes. In
this case, the two events are mutually exclusive.

Equally Likely Events in Probability

Events with an equal chance of occurring are equally likely

events. Like tossing a coin (with a 50% chance of heads and a
50% chance of tails) or rolling a die (1/6 chance of receiving any
number). 
Therefore, the following are examples of equally possible events
when dice are thrown:
 Finding 3 and 5 by throwing a dice
 Finding the same number and the odd number in the die
 Find 1, 2, or 3 rolling dice
They are equally likely events, as the probability of each event is
equal.
 

Complementary Events in Real-life

Any event has two possibilities i.e, whether it will occur or not. 
As someone who will come or not come to your house, get a
job or not get a job, etc., they are examples of
complementary. Some real-life  examples are:
 It will rain or not today
 Whether the student will pass the test or not.
 You win the lottery or you don't win.

Uses of Probability
  Weather Forecasting-
We often check weather forecasting before planning for an
outing. The weather forecast tells us if the day will be
cloudy, sunny, stormy, or rainy. On the basis of the
prediction made, we plan our day.

 Agriculture-
Temperature, season, and weather play an important role in
agriculture and farming. Earlier, we did not have a better
understanding of weather forecasting, but now various
technologies are developed for weather forecasting, which
helps the farmers to do their job well on the basis of
predictions

 Insurance-
Insurance companies use probability to find out the chances
of a person’s death by studying the database of the person’s
family history and personal habits like drinking and smoking.

 Sports outcomes-
Coaches use probability to decide the best possible
strategy to pursue in a game.  

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the probability project has provided a
comprehensive study of probability, its principles, applications,
and significance in various scenarios. Through theoretical
explanations, practical examples, and data analysis, we have
gained a deeper understanding of this fundamental mathematical
concept. The project concluded with a reflection on the
significance of probability in decision-making and statistical
analysis. It emphasized the role of probability in making informed
predictions

LIMITATIONS
 The probability of an event cannot be found if the outcomes
are infinite.

 If the total number of outcomes is not known, the probability of

an event cannot be found.

 If the elementary outcomes in the sample space are not equi-

probable, the probability of an event cannot be found.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.google.com
 www.cbse.com
 www.byjus.com
 www.vedantu.com

THANK YOU