Electrostatics

Branch of Physics, which studies the interaction and behaviour of charges at rest.

Prof. J. K. Goswamy
UIET, Panjab University
Chandigarh.
Overview of Presentation
 Coulomb’s Law.
 Electric Field.
 Electrostatic Potential.
 Gauss’ Law.
 Poisson and Laplace Equations.
 Uniqueness Theorem.
 Solution of Laplace Equation.
Coulomb’s Law
Concept of Charge
 Benjamin Franklin performed systematic experiments to probe for kind of

charges and nature of interaction between them.

 Glass rod was rubbed with silk cloth and ebonite rod with flannel cloth. Weak

forces were observed when these rubbed bodies were brought closer to each
other:
Combination of Bodies Nature of Force

Silk cloth-Glass Rod Weak Attraction

Flannel Cloth-Ebonite Rod Weak Attraction

Silk Cloth-Ebonite Rod Weak Repulsion

Flannel Cloth-Glass Rod Weak Repulsion

Silk Cloth-Flannel Cloth Weak Repulsion

Glass Rod-Ebonite Rod Weak Attraction

 From these observations, it was concluded that:
 There are two kinds of charges, which were termed positive and negative for
distinction. Such charges acquired by the bodies on account of rubbing are called static
or frictional charges. During the process of rubbing discussed above, the glass rod and
flannel acquire positive charge while silk and ebonite become negatively charged.
 Like charges repel while unlike charges attract.

Atomic Origin of Electric Charges Charging a Body

• The atom of every substance is constituted by
positively charged nucleus surrounded by clouds of
negatively charged electrons in orbital motion.
• Both the protons (in the nucleus) and electrons have
same magnitude of charge given as e = 1.6 x 10 -19C,
although their signs are opposite.
• This is the minimum amount of charge, which can exist
freely and is called elementary charge.
• The proton number in the nucleus equals the number
of extra-nuclear electrons to maintain electric
neutrality.
• A body can be charged by the process of induction, conduction or
friction.
• In the process of friction, two bodies are rubbed with each other
thereby resulting in flow of electrons from a body to another. The body
gaining electrons acquires negative charge while the one losing the
electrons is positively charge.
• In case of electrostatic induction, the presence of charged body in
neighbourhood of a neutral body causes the redistribution of electrons
in the latter and hence it develops charge on it due to polarisation.
• In the process of conduction, a charged body is brought in contact with
uncharged charged body, causing flow of charges.
Properties of Electric Charge
 Charge can be defined as property associated with the matter

due to which it produces electric and magnetic effects.

 Charge represents excess or deficiency of electrons.

 It is a scalar quantity and obeys algebraic addition.

 Charge is always associated with mass. It is due to this reason

that a photons or neutrinos are chargeless.

 Invariance of charge implies that its magnitude is not affected

by the state of motion of the body.

Q(static) = Q(dynamic)
Conservation of charge: During the process of charge transfer,

charge gained by a body is exactly equal to that lost by other

bodies.
Quantisation of charge: Charge can be transferred in integral

multiples of unit (equal e = 1.6 x 10-19C) called elementary charge.

This property is referred to as quantisation of charge. Hence a
body can possess a charge expressible as Q = ne.
Fractional Charges: The particles called Quarks possess charge,

which is fraction of elementary charge (e/3, 2e/3), but these

particles can not exist in free state and hence are not
transferable.
Problems Set 1

1. Can a body acquire a charge of 88 x IO-6C. Justify.

2. 2000 electrons are transferred from body A to B by process of rubbing. What

charge does each body acquire.

3. In what way charge differs from mass?

4. Two identical spheres of exactly equal mass are taken and one is given
positive charge and other equal amount of negative charge. Which one will be
heavier and why.
Electrostatic Force: Coulomb’s Law
 According to this law, two point charges, placed in vacuum, attract or repel each other with a force, which is

directly proportional to product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance of
separation between them.
 It can be expressed mathematically as

where =9 x 109 Nm2/C2

 Nature of force: The force is attractive (F<0) between unlike charges and repulsive (F>0) between
similar charges.

 Central Nature: This forced acts along the line joining two charges and its magnitude depends
inversely on the square of distance of separation between them. The force obeying these two
features is central in nature.

 Exchange Nature: Coulomb’s interaction between two charges results from exchange of virtual
photons between them at extremely rapid rate (1017 Hz).

 Range of Coulomb’s Force: Coulomb’s force operates between two protons within nucleus and even
between two charges at very great distance from each other. Hence it has a range from 10 -15m to
infinity.
 Units for Electric Charge

 The CGS unit of charge is statCoulomb while SI unit is Coulomb which are
related as 1C = 3 x 109 StatC.

 The coulomb is not a small unit of charge.

 If two unit Coulomb charges are placed 1m apart from each other, then

they exert a force of 9 x 109N. This force is equal to the weight of 90000
trucks, each weighing 10000kg, lying one over the other.

 Hence the practical units of charge are

1mC = 10-3C (Strong Charge)

1C = 10-6C (Mediocre Charge)

1nC = 10-9C (Weak Charge)

1pC = 10-12C (Very weak charge)

 Electric Permittivity

 It is the property of the medium, signifying response of a medium in

transmitting electrostatic interaction from one charge to the other.

 It has minimum value 0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2 for air or vacuum. Its
dimensions are [M-1L-3T4A2].

 For other media, relative permittivity (r) or dielectric constant (K) is

given as

r = K = r / 0

which is always greater than unity.

 The greater is the value of electric permittivity, smaller is the force.

Effect of Intervening Medium
 If the charges are placed in medium other than air or vacuum,
then force decreases by a factor of relative permittivity (r) or
dielectric constant (K) (always greater than unity).
 The relation of force between two charges when placed in vacuum
(F0) and in a medium (Fm) is given as

 This law is not universal as it depends upon the nature of

intervening medium.
 This law is also not valid for charges in solids because the relative
permittivity of a solid is directional dependent.
 Vectorial Form of Coulomb Force

If two charges are located at positions defined

𝑞1
by position vectors r1 and r2, then force ⃗𝑟
⃗
𝑟1
between them can be expressed as 𝑞2

The force () exerted by charge q1 on q2 is given as

⃗
𝑟2

The force () exerted by charge q2 on q1 is given as

=-

Two forces are mutual as two charges exert

equal and opposite forces on each other while
obeying Newton’s third law.
 Superposition Principle
𝑞
 If there is a system of charges, then resultant force on 𝑞1
any charge is the vector sum of forces due to all other
⃗
𝑟2 ⃗
𝑟4
charges. ⃗
𝑟1
𝑞2 𝑞4
= ⃗𝑟
 The force between any two charges is not influenced
by the presence of other charges in the vicinity. ⃗
𝑟3 𝑞3
 This principle implies that Coulomb’s force is purely a
two-body interaction.

 Earnshaw’s Theorem

 It states that the equilibrium of a charged particle

under the action of a Coulomb force is never stable.

 This implies that a charged particle can remain at rest

only under the influence of two or more electrical
forces acting on it which counterbalance each other.
 Problem Set 2
1. What are the essential similarities and differences between Coulomb’s and

gravitational forces.

2. Why ionic salts are stable molecules in air but dissociate into ions in water.

3. Vehicles carrying the inflammable materials have metallic cable attached to

them, which remain in contact with the ground. Why.

4. If a soap bubble is charged, what will be effect on its size.

5. Can two similarly charged bodies attract each other. Justify.

6. Two similarly and equally charged identical metal spheres A and B repel

each other with a force of 2 x 10-5N. A third uncharged sphere is touched

with A and then placed at mid-point between A and B. What is force on C.
(2 x 10-5N)
7. A charge Q is to be divided on two objects. What should be the values of
charge so that the force between the objects can be maximum. (q = 0.5Q)

8. Two particles, each having a mass of 5g and charge 100nC, stay in limiting
equilibrium on a horizontal table with a separation of 10cm between them.
The coefficient of friction of each particle with table is same. Find the value of
this coefficient. ( = 0.18)

9. The force between two equal charges placed in a medium at a distance of

9cm from each other is 16 dyne. On increasing one of the charges by 56statC,
it is found that the distance between the charges must be changed by 3cm to
keep the force between them the same. Calculate the magnitude of charges
and dielectric constant of the medium. (72statC, 4)

10. Two small similarly charged spheres each of 10-6kg are suspended from a

point by silk threads 50cm long. They repel each other to a distance of 20cm.
Calculate charge on each sphere and tension in thread. (3.01nC, 1.96N).
11. Two identical charged spheres, suspended by strings of equal length, make an angle
of 30o with each other. When suspended in the liquid of density 0.8g/cc, the angle
remains the same. If density of metal of sphere is 1.6g/cc, find dielectric constant of
the liquid. (2)

12. Charges of 5C, 10C and -10C are placed in air at the corners A, B and C of an

equilateral triangle ABC, each having side equal to 5cm. Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force on charge at A. (180N, parallel to BC).

13. Two opposite corners of a square carry Q charge and the other two opposite corners

have q charge. If net force on Q is zero, then how are Q and q related. (Q = -22q).

14. Two free point charges 4q and q are at a distance a apart from each other in air.

Where would the third charge Q be kept along the same line in such a way that
entire system is in equilibrium. What is the magnitude and sign of the third charge.
(at 2a/3 from 4q, Q = -4/9q).
Electric Field
 Concept of Electric Field
 Viewpoint: If an isolated charge is placed at a point in the free space then it modifies the

properties of the space around it in such a way that any other charge introduced into this
space experiences either an attractive or repulsive force. This modification of space properties
is called electric field.

 Definition: The electric field at any point in the vicinity of a charge is defined as the force per

unit charge experienced by an infinitesimally small positive charge placed at that point.

 The charge whose electric field is being measured is called source charge while the

infinitesimally small positive test charge used to measure electric field is called test charge.

 The infinitesimally small test charge is preferred so that it does not disturb the position and

field of the source charge itself.

 It is a mathematical tool to associate the electric effect as solely a property of source charge.
 The electric field due to a point charge at a point at a distance r from it is :

 The Electric field has dimensions [ M1L1T-3A-1] and SI unit of electric field is

N/C while CGS unit is dyne/statC. The relation between two units is

1N/C = 3.33 x 10-5 dyne/statC

 Motion of Charged Particle in Electric field

 The positively charged particles are accelerated in the direction of the

electric field but the negatively charged particles are accelerated

against the direction of electric field.
 The acceleration of charged particle moving in the uniform electric

field is given to be .
• Field Vector representation: If a charge q is placed at position defined
by in the co-ordinate space and the electric field at a position is to be
measured, then it is given as:

=
 The electric field vector has magnitude (called electric field
intensity) as given above.

 The direction of the field vector at any point is tangent to the path
of motion followed by the unit positive test charge placed at that
point.
 Electric Field due to System of Discrete Charges: The electric field due

to a system of discrete charges at any point is given in magnitude and

direction by the vector sum of the fields due to each charge in the
distribution.
 The net electric field due to system of charges distributed in the co-

ordinate space at a point defined by the position vector is given as

 This implies that electric field due a charge at a given point is not

influenced by the presence of other charges in vicinity. This is called

principle of superposition of fields.
 Electric Field due to Continuous Charge Distribution

If we have a continuous charge distribution, then electric field at any point is

given as :

 If the charge is uniformly distributed along a line such that  denotes the
linear charge density, then electric field is given as:

 If the charge is distributed uniformly over some surface such that  is the
surface charge density, then electric field at any point is given as:

 If the charge is distributed uniformly in some space such that  is the volume
charge density, then electric field at any point is given as:
 Neutral Point in the Electric Field

When two or more charges are distributed in a given region of space, then at a particular point
(depending upon distribution), the net electric field is zero. Such a point is referred to as
neutral point in the electric field.
 Position of neutral point in different distribution of charges are:

 For two positive or negative charges, the neutral point lies on the line joining them and

between the charges. The neutral point is closer to the relatively weaker charge.
 For a positive and negative charge, the neutral point lies on the line joining them but not in

the space between the charges. It lies on the side of charge having relatively weaker
magnitude.
 For two positive and negative charges, equal in magnitude, the neutral point never exists.

 For three equal charges, lying at vertices of an equilateral triangle, neutral point exists at

centroid of triangle.
 For four equal charges, lying on the vertices of a rectangle or square, the neutral point

exists at point of intersection of diagonals.

 For identical charges on vertices of a regular hexagon, the neutral point exists at its centre.
Concept of Electric Field Lines

 The concept of field lines was first given by

Faraday so as to provide a pictorial
representation.
 The electric field line is the path along which the
unit positive charged particle would move when
placed at point in electric field.
 The following are the important features of the
electric field lines:
 These are imaginary lines, which may be
straight or curved.
 The direction of electric field at a point is
along tangent to field line.
 The electric field lines originate from positive
charge and terminate at a negative charge.
 Two field lines do not intersect each other.
 The electric field lines contract longitudinally.

This implies the attraction between unlike

charges.
 The electric field lines exert lateral pressure on

each other. This implies the repulsion between

like charges
 The number of field lines crossing a unit area in

the normal direction represents the magnitude of

the electric field intensity.
o Spacing between the field lines gives the information about the
strength of electric field.
o If the lines are closely spaced, then field is strong and it is weak
field for widely spaced lines.
o If the spacing between the field lines is uniform then it defines a
uniform electric field.
Problems Set 3
1. Two point charges of 20C and 80C are placed 18cm apart. Find the position of the point

where the electric field is zero. (at 6cm away from 20C towards 80C charge)

2. The charges Q, -Q, -2Q and –2Q are placed at the corners of a square of side a. Find the

magnitude and direction of the electric field at the centre of square {2Q10)/a2N/C}

3. A pendulum of mass 80mg and carrying a charge of 20nC is placed in a horizontal electric

field of 2000N/C. Find the tension in thread and angle it makes with the vertical. (T
=881N, tan = 0.51).

4. An infinite plane of positive charge has a surface density . A metal ball B of mass m and

charge q is attached to a thread and tied to a point on the charged sheet. Find the angle

between the thread and the sheet. ( tan = q/2omg).

5. An infinite number of charges, each of charge q, are placed on the x-axis at x=1, x=2, x=4,

x=8,…. Find the electric field at x=0. (q/3o).

6. ABCD is a rectangle with AB=30cm and DBC=30 and three charges -6400nC,
2000nC and -6400nC are placed at comers B, C and D respectively. Find the electric
field intensity at A.

7. An inclined plane of angle 30o with the horizontal is placed in an uniform

horizontal electric field of 100V/m. Particle of mass 1kg and charge 0.01C is
allowed to slide down the plane from rest at height of 1m. If  = 0.2, find the time
taken to reach the bottom.(1.35s)

8. An electron is released with a velocity 5 x 106m/s in an electric field of 1000N/C,

which is applied to oppose its motion. What distance would the electron travel
and how much time could it take before coming to rest. (7cm, 29ns)

9. A copper ball of density 8.6g/cc, 1cm in diameter is immersed in oil of density

0.8g/cc. If the ball remains suspended in oil in the electric field of intensity
36000N/C acting in the upward direction. What is the charge on the ball. (1.1C).
Electrostatic Potential
Significance of Electric Potential
The electric field due to a discrete or continuous charge distribution can be

obtained by applying superposition principle on contribution of different portions

of distribution.
However this procedure is tedious and impractical in many situations.

To simplify this procedure, a scalar function called electric potential is evaluated,

which is further used to obtain electric field.

This excludes the complications of vector analysis involved in direct field

evaluation using superposition principle.

Electric potential at any point is defined as work done to bring a unit positive

infinitesimal test charge from infinity to the considered point, in the electric field
Units and Dimensions of Electric Potential
due to source charge, without causing any acceleration.
SI units: 1Volt = 1J/C
Mathematically we have CGS units: 1Statvolt = 1erg/StatC.
Relation: 1Volt = (1/300)Statvolt
Dimensions: [M1L2T-3A-1].
Electric Potential Due to Charge Distributions
 Electric Potential due to Point Charge: The electric potential due to a point
charge q at distance r is

 Electric Potential due to Discrete Charge Distribution: If we have a distribution

of discrete charges in co-ordinate space, then electric potential due to them at

a point in space is given as scalar sum of electric potentials due to each of
them at the considered point
 Electric Potential due to Continuous Charge Distribution: The electric

potential due to a various uniform charge distribution is given as :

Linear charge distribution
Surface charge distribution
Volume charge distribution
 Electric Potential of a Conductor: The electric potential of conductor
depends upon:
o quantity of charge on its surface
o medium surrounding the conductor
o area of the conductor
o presence of other conductors in vicinity of this conductor.
Potential Difference and Electric Field
 The work done to move a unit positive test charge from a point A to another point B

in the electric field due to some isolated charge q is called potential difference (VBA)
between two points which is expressed as

 The potential difference between any two points in the electric field can also be

expressed as negative of line integral of electric field between these points. Hence
we have

 The line integral solely depends upon the initial and final positions, which defines

conservative nature of Coulomb’s force.

 The line integral around a closed path is zero or no work is required to move a

charged in a closed path.

Electric Potential Energy and EMF

Electric Potential Energy: The total work done on a given charge q to bring it
from infinity to the considered point in the electric field due to source charge Q
is stored within this charge as its electric potential energy. It is expressed as

Electromotive Force: It is defined as the total work done in moving a unit

positive test charge around a closed path in an electric field. It is expressed as :

 The emf always exists in a closed circuit.

 Electrostatically it is zero due to conservative nature of Coulomb’s force.

 However in electrodynamics, emf is not always zero.

Electric Field as Potential Gradient
 The electric field can be related to the electric potential as

 The electric field can be expressed as negative of potential gradient.

 As a result electric field can also expressed in the units of volt/metre.

Equipotential Surfaces
• If the electric potential remains constant over a surface (real or imaginary)
placed in the electric field, then it is called an Equipotential surface.

• Each equipotential surface is characterized by unique value of potential.

• Using the expression for potential difference, we get :

• No work is performed when charge moves over the equipotential surface.

• The equipotential surfaces do not intersect each other as there is always some
work required to move a charge from one equipotential surface to another.
• Electric field lines are always perpendicular to the equipotential surface.

Since E 0 hence cos = 0 or  = 90o.

Thus electric field line is perpendicular to equipotential surface.

For a strong field, the equipotential surfaces are closely spaced while widely

spaced for the weak field.

Shapes of Equipotential Surfaces: The shape of the equipotential surface

depends upon the charge distribution.

 The equipotential surface is cylindrical for an infinite line charge distribution.

 For an electric dipole, the equipotential surface is a plane perpendicular to axis

of dipole.
 The equipotential surface for an infinite sheet of charge is a plane.

 The equipotential surfaces for a point charge, spherical conductor / non-

conductor are concentric spheres.

Problems Set 4
1. If an electron and -particle are placed in electric field, what will be their direction of

motion in terms of electric potential.

2. Electric potential need not necessarily be zero where electric field is zero. Why.

3. A charged conical conductor looses charge quicker than a similarly charged sphere.

4. What is the electric potential at the surface of gold nucleus.( Z = 79) of radius 6.6fm.

(17.24MV)

5. 27 charged drops water drops each with a diameter of 2mm and a charge 1pC coalesce

to form a single drop. What is the potential of this drop. (81V).

6. Charges of 6, 12 and 24pC are placed at three corners of a square. Find what must be the

charge on the fourth corner so that potential at the centre of the square is zero. (-42pC).

7. A cube of side b has a charge q at each of its vertices. Determine electric field intensity

and potential at centre of the cube. {0, (1/40)16q/3b}

8. Determine the distance of closest approach of 2.5MeV  particle of energy 2.5eV being

scattered by gold nucleus(Z=79)

9. A small particle carrying a –ve charge of electron is suspended in equilibrium between two horizontal plates 5cm
apart, having a potential difference 3000V across them. Find the mass of the particle. (9.8 x 10-16kg)

10. If the potential in the region of space around the point (-1m, 2m, 3m) is given by V = (10x2 + 5y2 - 3z2)V. Calculate

the three components of electric field at the considered point. (20V/m, -20V/m and 18V/m)

11. Two electrons are released with velocities 106m/s towards each other. What is the closest distance of approach

between them. (2.56 x 10-10m)

12. A circular ring of radius R with uniform positive charge density  pr unit length is located in the yz-plane with its

centre at the origin O. A particle of mass m and positive charge q is projected from the point P(R3,0,0) on the
positive x-axis towards O. Find the smallest speed so that the particle does not return to P. {(q/2om)}

13. A spherical oil drop of radius 10-4cm has on it a charge of 40 electrons. Calculate the energy that would be

required to place an additional electron on the drop. ( 9.22 x 10-21J)

14. Three charges –q, Q and q are placed at equal distances on a straight line. If the potential energy of the system

charges is zero, then what is the ratio of Q : q. (1 : 2)

15. A charge Q is distributed over two concentric spheres of radii r and R (>r) such that the surface densities are

equal. Find the potential at common centre. {Q(R+r)/4o(R2 + r2)}

16. Three point charges 1C, 2C and 3C are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side 1m. Calculate the

work done to move these charges to the corners of a similar equilateral triangle of side 50cm. (99GJ)

17. Two circular loops of radius 5cm and 9cm respectively are put such that their axes coincide and their centres are

12cm apart. A charge of 1C is spread on each loop. Find potential difference between centres of two loops.
(71kV)
Electric Dipole
 Electric Dipole Equatorial axis


An electric dipole is a system of two charges, equal 
p  q 2l 
in magnitude and opposite in nature, which are Axial Line
separated by a fixed distance from each other.
 -q 2l +q
Dimensions of Dipole Moment are [LTA] and SI units
are Coulomb-meter (Cm) which is very large in
magnitude.

The dipole moment of atoms and molecules is
measured in the units of Debye (D) which is defined
as dipole moment of a system of charges of
magnitude 10-10 Stat-Coulomb separated by a
distance of 10-10m.
1D=3.33 x 10-30Cm
 Electric Field Due to a Dipole
 The net electric field due to a dipole is given as vector sum of
field due to each of the constituent charges.
 The electric field due to a dipole can be measured at three
different locations of interest, which are

 Eax = Electric field at any point on axial line

 Eeq = Electric field at any point on equatorial line.

 Eob = Electric field at any oblique point.

 The direction of electric field due a dipole depends upon

location at which it is measured.
Axial Field Due to Dipole

r  l 
r  l 
A B
P
q O q r

q q 4 qlr
Eax   
4 0 ( r  l ) 2 4 0 ( r  l ) 2 4 0 ( r 2  l 2 ) 2
 
2 pr
Eax 
4 0 ( r 2  l 2 ) 2
 
Eax is in direction of dipole moment p
 Equatorial Field Due to Dipole

E
P 
Eeq
2

2
r l 2
E
r2  l 2
r
 l l 
q q
O
A B

E 2 eq  E2  E 2   2 E E cos 2  2 E 2  1  cos 2   4 E 2  cos 2 


 q  l  p
Eeq  2  2 2 
 
 4 0 ( r  l ) 2 2 2
  (r  l )  4 0 (r  l )
2 3

 
Eax is against the direction of dipole moment p
 Oblique Field Due to Dipole

E
P

 
 Eob
E
r
l  l
q
q
O
A B

   
 3r  p r  r 2 p
Eob 
4 0 r 5
1
tan   tan 
2
 Electric Potential Due to Dipole
P


r
l  l
q
q
O
A B
p cos 
V   Oblique Potential
4 0 r 2
p
Vax   Axial Potential
4 0 r 2
Veq  0  Equatorial Potential
 Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field
 An electric dipole is placed in the uniform electric field with dipole moment inclined at

an angle θ to the direction of field.

q

  qE

 E
 qE q

 The two charges of dipole suffer equal and opposite force which have different lines of action.
  
 This pair of forces 
will p  Ea couple,which
constitute  pE sin  torque.
will generate

 The exerted torque will have a tendency to align the electric dipole moment along the direction

of field.
 If the electric dipole is inclined at some angle to the field, it possesses

electric potential energy.

 If an electric dipole is rotated with its orientation α to new orientation

β w.r.t external field, the work done is


W   d  pE (cos   cos  )  U

 If we consider α=90o as the reference orientation for zero potential

energy then
 
U   pE cos    p  E
If   0o U   pE  U min Most Stable
If   90o U 0 Re ference
If   180o U   pE  U max Least Stable
 Dipole-Dipole interaction: When one dipole is in the field of the other,

then repulsive or attractive forces are experienced between them

depending upon their relative positions. As a result, the force, couple
and potential energy in this situation differs and is tabulated below:
Relative position Force
Attractive
 
(1/4o)(6p1p2/r4)
p1 p2

Repulsive
p1 p2
(1/4o) (3p1p2/r4)

(1/4o) (3p1p2/r4)
 
Perpendicular to r
p1 p2
Linear Charge Distributions
Electric Field due to Finite Line Charge Distribution
 Consider a line of positive charge lying along the x-axis. We wish to evaluate

electric field due to this charge distribution at point P (0,y,0) lying on y-axis.
P(0,y,0)

=
⃗
𝑅= ^𝑗 𝑦

B (-a,0,0) O ⃗
𝑅=𝑖^ 𝑥 dx A(b,0,0)

 Electric field at point P due to element dx on the line is:

Electric field due to whole of the line charge distribution is given to be:
Electric Field due to Infinite Line Charge Distribution
 Consider a infinitely long line of positive charge lying along the x-axis. We wish

to evaluate electric field due to this charge distribution at point P (0,y,0) lying
on y-axis. P(0,y,0)

=
⃗
𝑅= ^𝑗 𝑦

B (-a,0,0) O ⃗
𝑅=𝑖^ 𝑥 dx A(b,0,0)

 Electric field at point P due to element dx on the line is:

Electric field due to whole of the line charge distribution is given to be:
 The x-component of the electric field at point P vanish as contributions from

different portions nullify each other. Hence net electric field is:

To solve this integral, let’s suppose that The limits of integral get transformed as and

Hence the vectorial field is given as:

=
 Electric Field due to Charged Circular Ring
Y
 Let’s consider a charged

circular ring of radius a

M(0,y,z)
placed in YZ plane with its
center coinciding with
origin of coordinates.
X
 We wish to evaluate
electric field due to it at a O P(x,0,0)
point of observation
⃗
𝑀𝑃 =⃗
𝑂𝑃 −⃗
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑖^ 𝑥 − ( ^𝑗 𝑦+ 𝑘
^ 𝑧)
P(x,0,0) lying on the x-axis. Z
 Electric field at point P due

to the line segment is:

 The electric field due to whole of the circular loop is given as:

=
 Let and then = . The y- and z-components of electric at point P shall cancel
each other thereby leading to net electric field in x-direction. Further if then
we get:

=
 If
 Electric Field due to a Charged Infinite Sheet
 Let’s first consider a uniformly charged

circular disc of radius a placed in YZ plane

of the coordinate system. We wish to A

evaluate electric field due to this disc at

some point P (x,0,0) on the x-axis of the
coordinate system.
𝑂 𝑃 (𝑥 , 0,0)
 The circular disc can be considered to be

constituted by large number of concentric

circular rings, each with very small ⃗
𝑂𝑃=⃗
𝑂𝐴+⃗
𝐴𝑃
thickness and their radii varying from 0 to
⃗
𝑂𝑃=𝑖^ 𝑥+ ^𝑗 𝑦
a. Let’s consider one such circular ring of
radius r and thickness dr. The vectorial
electric field due to this charged circular
=

ring is expressed as:

 Total electric field due to circular disc of radius a is evaluated by integrating the

electric field contribution due to concentric circular rings.

Let =t and then we get:

 If the sheet is infinite then =0. The electric field due to infinite sheet shall be

given as:
Gauss’ Law
Electric Flux
 Intensity of electric field at any point in the space is proportional to the
number of field lines crossing unit area of cross-section around that point in
normal direction. It is also sometimes referred to as electric flux density.

 Electric flux is defined as the total number of field lines passing through the
given area in normal direction. It is expressed mathematically as

 Electric flux is scalar quantity having units of Vm and dimensions [M1L3T-3A-1].

 The area vector is directed outward normal to the surface. As a result we have
 = maximum E is crossing the area normally.

=0 E is parallel to the surface.

 For a closed surface, the outward flux is considered as positive while the
inward flux is taken to be negative.
 Gauss’ Law
Definition:
 Gauss’ Law relates the total electric flux through a closed surface to the net
charge enclosed by it. According to this Law, the total electric flux linked with a closed
surface is (1/0) times the net charge enclosed by the closed surface.

Gaussian Surface:


o The electric field evaluation due to continuous charge distribution becomes difficult or
even practically impossible by using conventional definition of electric field.
o In such situations, the Gauss’ law provides an easy method to evaluate electric field by
exploiting the symmetry of charge distribution.
o To determine electric field due to some charge distribution, an imaginary surface is
chosen such that at all point on its surface, the electric field lines are normal and
possesses same intensity. This is called Gaussian Surface.
o The choice of Gaussian surface simplifies the surface integral.
Equivalence with Coulomb’s law: The Gauss’ law assumes simple

form because of the fact that Coulomb’s law is an inverse square

law. In fact Coulomb and Gauss’ laws are derivable from each
other and hence are equivalent.
Condition for Zero Electric Flux: The total electric flux through a

closed surface can be zero only if no charge is enclosed or the net

charge enclosed is zero.
Effect of Position of Charges: The position of various enclosed

charges does not play any role in evaluation of total electric flux.
The electric flux due to charge lying outside a closed surface is

always zero.
Differential Form of Gauss’ Law
 The Gauss’ law is expressed as

 For a continuous charge distribution enclosed in a volume, then and using

Gauss’ divergence theorem, we get:

 For a given medium of electric permittivity

 The is called displacement vector signifies the net electric field in the medium

including the contribution of field due to polarisation of its atoms or

molecules.
 Electric field due to Line Charge
 Let’s consider a long line charge of length L with charge density and we wish

to evaluate the electric field at point P which is at perpendicular distance r

from the line.
 For this purpose, the Gaussian surface shall be a cylinder of radius r and length

L with line at its axis. The total electric flux emanating due to the line charge
shall be: a2

As then second integral a1

vanishes and we get:

a2
Electric Field due to Infinite Plane Sheet of Charge
 Let’s consider an infinite plane sheet having uniform surface

charge density We wish to determine electric field due to this

charge distribution at a perpendicular distance r from the surface.
 For the purpose, the Gaussian surface can be a cylinder of cross-

section A and length 2r inserted perpendicular and symmetrical

to the sheet such that surface of sheet passes through middle of
cross-section of the cylinder.
 The total electric flux through surface of this cylinder shall be:

=
 Electric Field due to Charged Spherical Shell

 Let’s consider a charged spherical shell of radius R with total charge Q on its

surface.
 We wish to determine electric field inside the spherical shell at a distance r from

the center such that r<R. If a concentric sphere of radius r is drawn inside the
spherical shell, then total charge enclosed inside this drawn sphere shall be zero.
Hence by Gauss’ law, the electric flux shall be zero resulting in zero in electric field.
 If we find electric field at any point at a distance r from the center of the spherical

shell, the Gaussian surface shall enclose the spherical shell itself which contains a
total charge Q. Hence by Gauss’ law, we can write:

 For electric field at surface of spherical shell it will be at r=R.

Electric Field due to Spherical Charged Distribution

 Let’s consider a charged spherical charge distribution of radius R with total charge

Q distributed uniformly in it.

 We wish to determine electric field outside the spherical charge distribution at a

distance r from the center such that r>R. If a concentric sphere of radius r is drawn
outside the charged sphere, then total charge enclosed inside this Gaussian
surface shall be Q. Hence by Gauss’ law, the electric flux shall be equal to total
charge contained in the distribution.

 For electric field at surface of spherical shell it will be at r=R.

 Let’s determine electric field a point inside the spherical charge distribution such

that it lies at distance r<R from the center.

 We draw a concentric sphere of radius r . It shall enclose a charge q given as:

 Using Gauss’ law, we get:

Electric Flux Through a Cube
 If a charge Q is situated at the centre of cube, the electric flux through all

surfaces of the cube is Q/0. The electric flux through any face of cube will be

Q/60.

 If charge Q is placed at one of the vertices of the cube, then its electric flux

shall pervade through 8cubes sharing this vertex. Hence flux through each of

these cubes will be Q/80.

The electric flux shall pervade through three surfaces of a cube which face it

while it shall be zero for other three surfaces which contain this vertex. Hence

electric flux through through any surface of the cube will be Q/240.

 If the charge is situated at the centre of the face of the cube, then its electric

flux shall be shared by two opposite surfaces of two adjacent cubes. Hence

flux through the cube’s surface will be Q/2 .

Problem Set 5
1. If the force varies inversely as cube of the distance, will the Gauss' theorem hold.
Justify

2. The net electric flux due to a positive charge placed outside the enclosed volume is
zero. Why.

3. What is the electric field inside the cavity, if the conductor having the cavity is charged.
Does the result depend upon the shape and size of the cavity.

4. What is the total electric flux due to 21 electric dipoles enclosed in a balloon.

5. Derive Coulomb’s law from Gauss’ law.

6. Show that if infinite charged surface is a conductor, then determine electric field due to
it at perpendicular distance r from the surface.

7. Show that a mechanical force is exerted on the surface of a charged conductor.

Poisson and Laplace Equations
Revisiting Electric Field
 The electric field is a vector field characterized by the following properties:

These three properties uniquely define the electric field.

 If the condition is expanded, it is observed that:

= = =
The above relations clearly reveal that the electric field is a vectorial field whose
three components are not independent of each other. Rather they are inter-
related to each other. Hence it should be considered as a special function obeying
above mentioned properties.
 This field, being vectorial in nature, the mathematical treatment assumes

simplicity when a scalar field, called electric potential, is introduced. It is

defined by the relation that:

 The law of superposition of Coulomb forces and electric fields at a point of

observation due to any distribution of charges are given as:

 The electric potential at a point due to distribution of charges is

 Further the net electric field due to such a distribution can be evaluated by .
Poisson and Laplace Equations
 Gauss’ law in electrostatics is expressed as:

 The electric field is also defined in terms of electric potential as:

 Thus we can write as:

Poisson’s Equation
 If charge density is set to zero, then:

Laplace’s Equation
 These two equations relate the electrostatic potential in a region of medium

with charge density enclosed in that medium. The enclosed charge may include
discrete or continuous distributions, the presence of dielectrics or conductors.
 The Laplace equation in the cartesian coordinate system is expressed as:

+ =0
 In cylindrical coordinates, the Laplace equation takes the form as:

+ =0
 In spherical polar coordinate system, the Laplace equation reduces to be:

+ + =0
 The Laplace’s equation holds whenever, in a region of medium, net charge

density vanishes. This may be possible due to any configuration of electrodes,

conductors, isolated charge distributions etc.
 The condition of Laplace equation gets satisfied only resultant field is

determined from it using boundary conditions over the medium and/or

conductors.
 Uniqueness Theorem

 Let’s assume that we have two solutions (V1 and V2) of Laplace equation.

Then we can write as:

 Each solution must satisfy boundary conditions and if we represent given

potential value at boundaries of the medium by V b, then

Vb = V2b = V1b or (V2b - V1b =0).

 Let’s consider the identity

+V

and use the following:

Let’s integrate over throughout the volume enclosed by the boundary surfaces
specified.

=+

The Gauss’ divergence theorem allows the volume integral to be converted to closed
surface integral over the surface surrounding the volume. The surface consists of
boundaries, already specified as , Hence we get the integral on LHS as:

As =0, so the integral on LHS vanishes.

=0
 The first integral on RHS is zero by hypothesis, we started with. Consequently

we are left with the equation given as:

=0

As the integrand is square of the quantity, it needs to be zero everywhere. Hence

we get :

=0 or

This proves the Uniqueness Theorem.

Solution of Laplace Equation
 Laplace equation is a second order differential equation and

several methods have been developed to solve it under

different situations.
 One of the common method involves direct integration which is

applicable only to the problems which are one-dimensional in

nature. In other words, the potential field is a function of only
one of the three coordinates.
 In this discussion, we shall use different potential functions and

solve Laplace equation and derive other physical quantities like

(C).
One-Dim Linear Potential Field
 Let’s assume that the potential is a function of x only. Hence it can be

expressed as:

 Applying Laplace equation on this function, we get:

 Let V=V1 at x=x1 and V=V2 at x=x2 . If these boundary conditions are applied, we

get:

 Let V=0 at x=0 and V=V0 at x=d then we get:

 Let’s find the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor having two parallel

conductor plates of area S separated by distance d. Hence we get:

 By Gauss’ law, we get:

 The capacitance is expressed as:

Cylindrically Symmetric Potential
 Let’s apply the Laplace equation to a cylindrically symmetric potential field which has

variation with the coordinate only. The Laplace equation is given in this situation as:

 The solution of this differential equation is:

 The shall define a cylindrical surface and problem becomes that of coaxial capacitor or

coaxial transmission line. We choose our potential function as:

Hence V takes the forms as:

 The quantity V represents the potential difference between two coaxial cylindrical

equipotential surfaces with radii . Hence these can constitute a cylindrical capacitor or a
cylindrical coaxial cable.
 The electric field is given as:

 The displacement vector is expressed as:

 The charge on c

 The capacitance of the cylindrical capacitor (or cylindrical coaxial cable) is

given as:
 Spherically Symmetric Potential
 Let’s consider that the potential field is described as which implies that it defines a

series of spherical equipotential surfaces with different values of r.

 The Laplace equation, under these constraints shall be truncated representation in

the spherical polar coordinate system as the coordinates shall no longer affect
potential variation.

 If we consider two concentric spherical surfaces such that , then it forms a pair of

surfaces of spherical capacitor when charged equally but oppositely. The potential
difference between these two surfaces shall be represented as:
 The electric field between two spherical surfaces shall be expressed as:

 The displacement vector is given as:

• The Charge on the plates of the spherical capacitor can be evaluated using Gauss’
law and given as:
=

 The capacitance of the spherical capacitor is expressed as: