ELECTROSTATICS

10
This chapter is the beginning of the study of
electromagnetism. We start with the concepts in
electrostatics which studies the phenomena of
charges at rest. Interaction between charges can be
described in terms of electric forces, and the electric
fields and its effect on other charged particles. The
electromagnetic force between charged particles is
one fundamental forces of nature. Another way to
describe an electrostatic phenomenon is through the
quantities known as potential energy and electric
potential as the force involved is conservative. This
concept of electric potential is also important in
discussing electronic circuits and devices such as the
capacitor which is a device that stores electric charge
and is used in radios and power supplies.
The Van de Graff generator is a physics
equipment used to investigate how charges
behave in different kind of materials and
demonstrates the principles of electrostatics.
When the Van de Graff is turned on, the main
dome is positively charged. A person holding
the main dome will experience her hair standing
on end due to repulsion of the positive charges
present in the hair charges (source:
https://assets.fishersci.com).

10.1 Electric Force

In a series of experiments by Benjamin Franklin

(1706 – 1790), it was found out that there are two
kinds of electric charges, the positive and negative
charges. Positive charges are called protons while
negative charges are identified as electrons. Both
charges behave differently from each other. Consider
two rods, one rubber and the other glass. The rubber
rod that has been rubbed on a fur is suspended by a
string and the glass rod has been rubbed in silk. When
the glass rod is brought near to the rubber rod, the two
attract each other. On the other hand, if we replace the
glass rod with another rubber rod rubbed in the same Figure 10.1: “The same charges
repel, while opposite charges attract.”
fur, the two will repel. The interaction of two stationary
(Source: http://www.actucation.com).
electric charges can be quantitatively described in
terms of the electric force acting between them and is given by Coulomb’s Law, named after
Charles Coulomb.

“The electrical force between two charged objects is directly proportional to the product of the
quantity of charge on the object and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.”

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Mathematically given as,

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃑ = 𝑟̂ (10-1)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
1 𝑁𝑚2
where: is the proportionality constant 𝒌 that has the value 9.0𝑥109 ;
4𝜋𝜖0 𝐶2
𝐶 2
𝝐𝟎 is the permittivity of free space with a value of 8.854 𝑥10−12 2 ;
𝑁𝑚
𝒓 is the distance separating the two charges;
𝒓̂ is the unit vector directed from the charge exerting the force towards the charge to
which the object is exerted.

Coulomb’s Law being a force has a unit of Newton (N), and the charges 𝒒𝟏 and 𝒒𝟐 has a unit of
Coulomb (C). For a free charge, the unit is given by 𝑒, and the charge on an electron is −𝑒
while +𝑒 for a proton where,
𝑒 = 1.602 𝑥10−19 𝐶

Coulomb’s Law is illustrated in Fig. 10.2. The Fig. 10.2(a) is that of two positive charges and
the forces acting between these charges are repulsive while Fig. 10.2(b) shows the attractive
force of two charges with opposite sign. Coulomb’s Law can only be applied to point charges.
The forces of interaction must lie along the line of action between these two point charges and
have equal magnitude but opposite directions.

Figure 10.2: (a) Two positive charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 separated by a distance 𝑟 with their individual forces; and
(b) Opposite charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 with their individual forces.

When several charges exert force on a test charge 𝑞0 , the net force on the charge is the vector
sum of the individual forces of the surrounding charge known as the Principle of
Superposition.

𝐹⃑𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹⃑1 + 𝐹⃑2 + 𝐹⃑3 + ⋯ (10-2)

10.2 Electric Field

When two point charges exist in empty space, how does each one knows the presence
of the other charge? We can begin to answer this question by using the concept of the
electric field. We define the electric field due to the source charge at the location of the test
charge to the electric force on the test charge per unit charge:

𝐹
𝐸⃗ = (10-3)
𝑞0

The vector ⃗𝑬 has the units of newtons per coulomb (N/C). The direction of ⃗𝑬 is the direction of
the force a positive charge experiences when place in the field. The existence of an electric
field is a property of its source, the presence of the test charge is not necessary for the field to
exist. An electric field exists at a point if a test charge at that point experiences electric force.
If an arbitrary charge q is placed in an electric field ⃗𝑬, it experiences an electric force given by

𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝐸⃗ (10-4)

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The test charge experiences an electric force given by
Coulomb’s Law. Because the electric field at the position of
the test charge is defined by ⃗𝑬 = 𝑭
⃗ ⁄𝑞0 , the electric field at P
created by q is

1 𝑞
(a)
𝐸⃗⃑ = 𝑟̂ (10-5)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

where: 𝒓 is the distance from the charge to the field point

P;
𝒓̂ is the unit vector that points from a source
charge to the field point.

When several point charges contribute to the electric field

at point P, the total electric field is the vector sum of the
individual electric fields of all the charges expressed by
(b)
1 𝑞𝑖
𝐸⃗⃑ = 𝐸⃗⃑1 + 𝐸⃗⃑2 + ⋯ = ∑ 2 𝑟̂ (10-6) Figure 10.3: (a) If q is positive,
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖
𝑖 the force is in the same direction
as the field, and the force and field
In some situations, the magnitude and direction of the are in opposite direction if q is
field have the same values everywhere throughout a negative. (b) A positive point
certain region; then we say that the field is uniform in charge has an electric field directed
radially outward, and inward for a
this region. An example of this is the electric field inside a
negative charge.
conductor. If there is an electric field within a conductor,
the field exerts a force on every charge in the conductor, giving the free charges a net motion.
Of an electrostatic situation is one in which the charges have no net motion. We conclude that
in electrostatics the electric field at every point within the material of a conductor must be
zero.

Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution

Equation 10-5 is useful for calculating the electric field of a point charge, and Eq. 10-6
is used when finding the electric field vector if there are several charges. But in some cases,
we have a continuous distribution of charge rather than discrete charges. The charge in these
situations can be described as continuously distributed along some line, over some surface, or
throughout some volume.

We follow a process when evaluating the electric field created by continuous charge
distribution. First, we divide the charge distribution into small elements, each of which
contains a small charge ∆𝑞. The electric field at point P due to one charge element is

1 ∆𝑞
∆𝐸⃗⃑ = 𝑟̂ (10-7)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

Then we calculate the electric field vectors due to these elements using Eq. 10.6 at a point 𝑃.
The total electric field at P due to all elements in the charge distribution is approximately

1 𝑞𝑖
𝐸⃗⃑ ≈ ∑ 2 𝑟̂ (10-8)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖
𝑖

Finally, we evaluate the total electric field at 𝑃 by summing the contributions of all the charge
elements. Because the number of elements is very large, and the charge distribution is

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modeled as continuous, the total field at 𝑃 in the limit ∆𝑞𝑖 → 0 is given by Eq. 10.10 where the
integration is over the entire charge distribution

1 𝑞𝑖 1 𝑑𝑞
𝐸⃗⃑ = lim ∑ 2 𝑟̂ = ∫ 2 𝑟̂ (10-9)
4𝜋𝜖0 ∆𝑞𝑖 →0 𝑟𝑖 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
𝑖

When performing calculations involving continuous charge distributions it would give us

convenience if we use the concept of a charge density with the following expressions:

• Linear Charge Density

If a charge Q is uniformly distributed along a line of length L, the linear charge density
𝜆 is
𝑄 1 𝜆(𝑟)𝑑𝑙
𝜆= ; |𝐸| = ∫
𝐿 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑟 2
• Surface Charge Density
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed on a surface of area A, the surface charge
density 𝜎 is
𝑄 1 𝜎(𝑟)𝑑𝑙
𝜎= ; |𝐸| = ∫
𝐴 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑟 2
• Volume Charge Density
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed throughout a volume V, the volume charge
density 𝜌 is
𝑄 1 𝜌(𝑟)𝑑𝑙
𝜌= ; |𝐸| = ∫
𝑉 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟 2

If the charge is nonuniformly distributed over a line, a surface, and a volume, the amounts of
charge dq in a small line, surface, and volume element are

𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉

Electric Field Line

A visual representation of the electric field is through the electric field lines. The
behavior of electric field lines has a direct relation to the properties of the electric field such as
the following:

• Electric field line are noncontinuous curves. They start from a positively charged body
and ends at a negatively charged one. No electric line of force exists inside the
charged body. Thus, electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops.
• The electric field vector is tangent to the electric field line at any point. The line’s
direction indicated by an arrowhead is the same as that of the electric field vector.
• The magnitude of the electric field is represented by the density of the field lines. The
closer the electric field lines, the stronger the electric field, and the farther the field
lines, the weaker the field.

Sample Problems

1. Point charges 𝑞1 = +12𝑛𝐶 and 𝑞2 – 12𝑛𝐶 are 0.100 𝑚 apart,

as shown in the figure on the right. This pair of point
charges with equal magnitude and opposite sign are
called electric dipoles. (a) Find the electric force 𝑞1 exerts
on 𝑞2 , and 𝑞2 exerts on 𝑞1 . (b) Compute the electric field
caused by 𝑞1 , the field caused by 𝑞2 , and the total field at
point 𝑐.

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Solution

(a) (i) Using Eq. 10-1, we find the force that 𝑞1 exerts on 𝑞2 and 𝑞2 exerts on 𝑞1 ,
𝑞1 𝑞2 (+12 𝑥10−9 𝐶)(−12 𝑥10−9 𝐶)
𝐹⃑1𝑜𝑛2 = 𝑘 2 𝑟̂ = (9.0 𝑥109 𝑁𝑚2 ⁄𝐶 2 ) ̂ = −1.296 𝑥10−4 𝑁𝑖̂
(𝑖)
𝑟 (0.100𝑚)2
𝑞1 𝑞2 (+12 𝑥10−9 𝐶)(−12 𝑥10−9 𝐶)
𝐹⃑2𝑜𝑛1 = 𝑘 𝑟̂ = (9.0 𝑥109 𝑁𝑚2 ⁄𝐶 2 ) ̂ = +1.296 𝑥10−4 𝑁𝑖̂
(−𝑖)
𝑟 2 (0.100𝑚)2
(b) Using Eq.10-5, we compute the electric field caused by 𝑞1 , and 𝑞2 at point 𝑐,
1 𝑞1 (+12 𝑥10−9 𝐶) 0.05𝑚𝑖̂ + 0.13𝑚𝑗̂
𝐸⃗⃑1 = 𝑟̂
1 = (9.0 𝑥109 𝑁𝑚2 ⁄𝐶 2 )
( ) = 2.0 𝑥103 𝑁𝑖̂ + 5.2 𝑥103 𝑁𝑗̂
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟12 (0.139𝑚)2 0.139𝑚
1 𝑞2 (−12 𝑥10−9 𝐶) −0.05𝑚𝑖̂ + 0.13𝑚𝑗̂
𝐸⃗⃑2 = 𝑟̂
2 = (9.0 𝑥109 𝑁𝑚2 ⁄𝐶 2 )
( ) = 2.0 𝑥103 𝑁𝑖̂ − 5.2 𝑥103 𝑁𝑗̂
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟22 (0.139𝑚)2 0.139𝑚
𝐸⃗⃑ = 𝐸⃗⃑1 + 𝐸⃗⃑2 = (2.0 𝑥103 𝑁𝑖̂ + 5.2 𝑥103 𝑁𝑗̂) + (2.0 𝑥103 𝑁𝑖̂ − 5.2 𝑥103 𝑁𝑗̂) = 4.0 𝑥103 𝑁𝑖̂

2. Positive charge 𝑄 is distributed uniformly along the y-

axis between 𝑦 = −𝑎 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 as shown in the figure
on the right. Find the electric field at point 𝑃 on the x-
axis at a distance 𝑥 from the origin.

Solution

We divide the linear charge of length 2𝑎 into

infinitesimal segments of length 𝑑𝑦. The linear charge
density is 𝜆 = 𝑄 ⁄2𝑎 and the charge in segment is 𝑑𝑄 =
𝜆𝑑𝑦 = (𝑄 ⁄2𝑎)𝑑𝑦. The distance r from a segment height
1
y to the field point P is 𝑟 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) ⁄2 , so the
magnitude of the field at P due to the segment at
height 𝑦 is

1 𝑑𝑄 1 𝑄 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝐸 = 2
=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 2𝑎 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Where the x- and y- components of this field are 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑑𝐸 cos 𝛼 and 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = −𝑑𝐸 sin 𝛼 where
cos 𝛼 = 𝑥⁄𝑟 and sin 𝛼 = 𝑦⁄𝑟 which result to

1 𝑄 𝑥𝑑𝑦 1 𝑄 𝑦𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = ; 𝑑𝐸𝑦 =
4𝜋𝜖0 2𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )3⁄2 4𝜋𝜖0 2𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )3⁄2

To find the total field at point P, we must integrate from 𝑦 = −𝑎 to 𝑦 = 𝑎, resulting in

1 𝑄 +𝑎 𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑄 1
𝐸𝑥 = ∫ =
4𝜋𝜖0 2𝑎 −𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )3⁄2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑥√(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
1 𝑄 +𝑎 𝑦𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝑦 = ∫ =0
4𝜋𝜖0 2𝑎 −𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )3⁄2
Or in vector form,
1 𝑄
𝐸⃗⃑ = 𝑖̂
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑥√(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2

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10.3 Electric Flux

Electric fields lines do not only help us visualize electric field vectors. Quantitatively,
we can use electric field lines to solve for the electric field vector in a region in space. Simply,
the amount of “flow” of field lines passing through a surface gives the electric flux. Consider
a rectangular surface placed in a region of a uniform electric field shown in Fig. 10.4a. The
surface is oriented perpendicular to the field, so that the electric field lines passes through the
surface. The total number of field lines passing through the surface is proportional to the dot
product between the field vector and area vector:

𝛷𝐸 = 𝐸⃗ • 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜙 (10-10)

The SI unit of the electric flux is 𝑁 · 𝑚2 /𝐶 derived from the units of the electric field 𝐸⃗ , and area
vector𝐴. But not all given surface is necessarily perpendicular with the electric field. Some
surface may be oriented such that the normal to the surface area A is at an angle θ with
respect to the uniform electric field, Fig. 10.4b. In such cases, Eq. 10-10 also provides the
equivalent expression of the electric flux.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10.4: (a) Surface is face-on to electric field. 𝐸⃗ and 𝐴 are parallel. (b) Surface is tilted from a face-
on orientation by an angle 𝜙. The angle between 𝐸⃗ and 𝐴 is 𝜙. (c) Surface is edge-on to electric field. 𝐸⃗
and 𝐴 are perpendicular (Source: Young & Freedman, Univ. Physics with Modern Physics 13th Ed.).

The Eq. (10-10) assumes that the field is uniform, but a more general case would be of an
electric field that varies over a large surface area, that is, it is nonuniform. Then Eq. 10-10,
would only hold for a small element of area over which we can approximate the field to be
constant. We then define this small area ∆𝐴𝑖 to represent the area of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ element of a
larger surface. Also, the electric field 𝐸⃗𝑖 at this surface element makes an angle 𝜃𝑖 with the
area vector. If we sum up the contributions of all elements and evaluate it all over the surface
of the area, we get the general definition of the electric flux to be

⃗ • 𝑑⃗𝐴
𝛷𝐸 ≡ ∫ 𝐸 (10-11)

The concept of electric flux can also be extended to closed surfaces. In such cases, we define
the electric flux to be the total number of lines leaving the surface minus the total number of
lines entering the surface. A net positive electric flux is a result of more lines entering than
leaving, otherwise, a net negative electric flux is a result of more lines leaving than entering
the surface. Thus, the electric flux equation of a closed surface is

⃗ • 𝑑⃗𝐴
𝛷𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸 (10-12)

where the symbol ∮, represents an integral over a closed surface.

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10.4 Gauss’s Law

If a charge is enclosed by a surface, the electric flux is

defined by Gauss’s Law. Gauss’ Law is an alternative to
Coulomb’s law. And the closed surface enclosing the charge is also
known as the gaussian surface.

Figure 10.5 shows a positive point charge q enclosed by a sphere

of radius R. From previous discussions, we know that the field
lines of a positive charge are radially outward thus, perpendicular
to the surface at every point. Using Eq. 10-12, the net electric flux
through the gaussian surface is

Fig. 10.5: Projection of an

⃗ • 𝑑⃗𝐴 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝐴.
𝛷𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸 (10-13) element of area 𝑑𝐴 of a
sphere of radius R onto a
The electric field E is moved outside of the integral because it is concentric sphere of
constant over the surface. The magnitude E is given by 𝑘𝑞 ⁄𝑟 2 and radius 2R.
∮ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 . Substituting these values to Eq.10-13 would result to the equation
𝑞
𝛷𝐸 = (10-14)
𝜖0

This equation shows that for sphere, the net electric flux is proportional to the charge inside
the sphere. The equation does not contain a variable for the radius r thus we can say that the
flux is independent of the dimension of the closed surfaced.

Now we carry over this equation to surfaces that are not

symmetrical in shape such as in Fig. 10.6. No matter the size
and shape of each surface, the net flux is given by Eq. 10-14.
Therefore,

“the net electric flux through any closed surface surrounding a

point charge depends on the charge enclosed and is
independent of the shape and size of the surface”.

Now consider a point charge located outside a closed surface,

Fig. 10.7. From the field lines drawn from the charge passing
through the surface, the lines entering the surface are the
same lines leaving the surface at another point. Thus, the net
electric flux through thus closed surface that does not surround
any charge is zero. Equation 10-14 also supports this result
mathematically. Fig. 10.6: Calculating the
electric flux through a non
Gauss’s Law’s mathematical form is the generalization of all our spherical surface.
findings above and states that at any closed surface, the net
electric flux is

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
𝛷𝐸 = ∮ ⃗𝐸 • 𝑑⃗𝐴 = (10-15)
𝜖0

Where 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 is the net charge inside the closed surface.

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Charges on Conductors

Under electrostatic equilibrium condition, charges in a solid

conductor can only exist entirely on its outer surface as
illustrated in Fig. 10.8. If there is a cavity inside the conductor,
no charge can exist inside the surface of the cavity. If there is a
charge +q inside the cavity, the total charge on the surface of
the cavity is -q.

Fig. 10.7: A point charge

outside a closed surface
that encloses no charge.
Figure 10.8: Under electrostatic conditions, any excess charge on a solid
conductor resides entirely on the conductor’s surface.

Sample Problems

1. A wedge in the shape of a rectangular box is kept on a

horizonal floor. The two triangular faces and the
rectangular face ABFE are in the vertical plane. The
electric field is horizontal, has a magnitude 8.0 𝑥104 𝑁⁄𝐶
and enter the wedge through the face ABFE, as shown.
The length AB is 0.2m, AE is 0.3m, and ED is 0.4m.
Calculate the flux through each of the faces and through
the entire surface of the wedge.

Solution

The outward normal to the triangular faces AED, BFC, as well as the normal to the base
are perpendicular to ⃗𝑬. Hence, the flux through each of these faces is zero.
• Surface ABFE
𝛷𝐸 = 𝐸⃗ • 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜙 = (8.0 𝑥104 𝑁⁄𝐶) 𝑥(0.2 𝑚 𝑥 0.3 𝑚) cos 0° = − 4.8 𝑥103 𝑁 · 𝑚2 /𝐶
• Surface ABCD
𝛷𝐸 = 𝐸⃗ • 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜙 = (8.0 𝑥104 𝑁⁄𝐶) 𝑥(0.2𝑚 𝑥 0.5𝑚)(0.3𝑚⁄0.5𝑚) = 4.8 𝑥103 𝑁 · 𝑚2 /𝐶
Therefore, the total flux through the entire wedge is
𝛷𝐸 = 𝛷𝐴𝐵𝐹𝐸 + 𝛷𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = 0

2. Electric charge is distributed uniformly along an infinitely long, thin wire. The charge per
unit length is 𝜆 (assumed positive). Find the electric field using Gauss’s law.

Solution

We found in Sample Problem 2 that the field 𝐸⃗ of a

uniformly charged, infinite wire depends on the
radial distance from the wire. This suggests that
we use a cylindrical Gaussian surface, of radius
𝑟 and arbitrary length 𝑙, coaxial with the wire and
with its end’s perpendicular to the wire, (see figure
on the right).

The flux through the flat ends of our Gaussian

surface is zero because the radial electric field is parallel to these ends. On the cylindrical

230
 part of our surface we have 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑛̂ = 𝐸⊥ = 𝐸 everywhere. The area of the cylindrical surface is
2𝜋𝑟𝑙, so the flux through it is 𝐸𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙𝐸. The total enclosed charge is 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 𝜆𝑙, thus using
Eq. 10-15,

𝜆𝑙 1 𝜆
𝛷𝐸 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙𝐸 = ; 𝐸=
𝜖0 2𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

Where 𝐸 is the field of an infinite line charge.

10.5 Electric Potential Energy

When a charge q is placed in an electric field 𝐸⃗ created by some source charge

distribution, the particle experiences a conservative force as described by Coulomb’s Law. If
the charge is free to move, the field exerts a force that can do work on the particle. This work
can be expressed in terms of the electric potential energy.

Consider the charged parallel plate shown in Figure 10.9. The

plates set up a downward uniform electric field with magnitude
𝐸. A positive test charge 𝑞0 placed between the plates
experiences a downward force. The force is constant and
independent of the location as the charge moves a distance d
from point 𝑎 to 𝑏. Thus, the work done by the field is given by

𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑞0 𝐸 (10-16)

Equation 10-16 does not contain any variable for the

displacement of the charge. Analogous to the work done
discussed in the previous chapters, the work done by the
electric field is independent of the path the particle takes from
𝑎 to 𝑏. We can represent this work with a potential-energy
function 𝑈. Hence, we can write the potential energy of electric
force to be Figure 10.9: The work done
on a point charge moving in a
𝑈 = 𝑞0 𝐸𝑦 uniform electric field.
(10-17)

If we let the first position of the charge to be 𝑦𝑎 and the second position 𝑦𝑏 , we can see the
work done by field is given by

𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = −∆𝑈 = −(𝑈𝑏 − 𝑈𝑎 ) = −(𝑞0 𝐸𝑦𝑏 − 𝑞0 𝐸𝑦𝑎 ) = 𝑞0 𝐸(𝑦𝑎 − 𝑦𝑏 ) (10-18)

If the displacement of the positive charge is in the same direction as the force, the work done
by field is positive and the potential energy decreases. When the positive charge moves
opposite the force, the field does a negative work on the charge, and the potential energy
increases. If the test charge is negative, the potential energy increases when it moves in the
same direction as the field and decreases when it moves opposite the field. Thus, whether the
test charge is positive of negative, the following rules apply:

1. U increases if a test charge moves in the direction opposite to the electric force acting
on it.
2. U decreases if s test charge moves in the same direction as the electric field acting on
it.

Another case where we can apply the concept of the electric potential energy is when a test
charge q0 moves in the electric field caused by a single, stationary point charge 𝑞. If the
displacement lie on the same radial line, the force experienced by the test charge is given by
Coulomb’s law. The force between the charges is positive and repulsive if 𝑞 and 𝑞0 have the

231
same sign; if the two charges have opposite signs, the force is negative and attractive. The
force this time is not constant and varies with the displacement, and we must integrate to
calculate the work done 𝑊𝑎→𝑏 done on 𝑞0 as it moves from point 𝑎 to point 𝑏:

𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑏
1 𝑞𝑞0 𝑞𝑞0 1 1
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = ∫ 𝐹𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = ( − ) (10-19)
𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑏 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏

Equation 10-19 shows that the work done by the electric force of a point charge on a test
charge 𝑞0 depends only on the endpoints. In cases where the displacement from a to b is not
in the same radial line, Eq. 10-19 is still valid since the work done is independent of the path
taken by 𝑞0 . Also, if 𝑞0 returns to its starting point at a by any path, the total work done is
zero.

If we define the potential at 𝑎 to be 𝑈𝑎 = 𝑞𝑞0 ⁄4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑎 , and at point 𝑏 to be 𝑈𝑏 = 𝑞𝑞0 ⁄4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑏 ,

then the potential energy 𝑈 of 𝑞0 at any distance 𝑟 from charge 𝑞 is

1 𝑞𝑞0
𝑈= (10-20)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

Since potential energy is defined at some reference point, 𝑈 is zero if both charges are
infinitely far apart, that is 𝑟 = ∞. If both charges have the same sign, work is positive, 𝑈 is
positive at some finite distance 𝑟, and the interaction is repulsive. If the charges have opposite
signs, the work done is negative, 𝑈 is negative, and the interaction is attractive.

Now that we have defined the electric potential energy of two point charges, we extend these
findings in which the charge 𝑞0 moves in a field caused by several charges point charges 𝑞1 ,
𝑞2 , 𝑞3 … at distances 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 … from 𝑞0 , Fig. 10.9. The total electric potential energy associated
with the test charge 𝑞0 is then the algebraic sum

𝑞0 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞0 𝑞𝑖
𝑈= ( + + + ⋯) = ∑ (10-21)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖
𝑖

If 𝑞0 is very far from all the charges that produce the field, we
define 𝑈 to be zero as all distances 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 … are infinite.
If we consider the interactions of the charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 with each
other, then we can solve for the total potential energy of the
system by using the equation

1 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑗
𝑈= ∑ (10-22)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖𝑗
𝑖<𝑗

Figure 10.10: The

10.6 Electric Potential
potential energy associated
with a charge 𝑞0 at point 𝑎
The concept of the electric potential, or simply potential,
depends on the other
is described as the potential energy “per unit charge”. By using
this concept, we can easily determine the electric field of a charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 .
system. The potential 𝑉 has the equation

𝑈
𝑉= or 𝑈 = 𝑞0 𝑉 (10-23)
𝑞0

Which gives the SI unit of the potential volt (V) to be 1 V = 1 J⁄C. And since the potential
energy is a scalar quantity, the potential 𝑉 is also scalar.

232
As a charge moves from 𝑎 to 𝑏, its potential energy is given by Eq. 10-20. If we divide this
equation by 𝑞0 , we obtain,

𝑊𝑎→𝑏 ∆𝑈 𝑈𝑏 𝑈𝑎
=− = − ( − ) = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (10-24)
𝑞0 𝑞0 𝑞0 𝑞0

The quantity 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑈𝑎 ⁄𝑞0 is the potential at point 𝑎, consequently 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑈𝑏 ⁄𝑞0 is the potential at
point 𝑏. 𝑉𝑎𝑏 is the potential of a with respect to b also called the potential difference between 𝑎
and 𝑏. In electric circuits, the potential difference between two points is often called the
voltage. Equation (10-24) then states: 𝑉𝑎𝑏 , the potential of 𝑎 with respect to 𝑏, equals the
work done by the electric force when a unit charge moves from 𝑎 to 𝑏.

Another way to interpret the potential difference 𝑉𝑎𝑏 is to use the viewpoint of potential energy
𝑈. 𝑈𝑎 – 𝑈𝑏 is the amount of work done that must be done by an external force to move a particle
of charge 𝑞0 slowly from 𝑎 to 𝑏 against the electric force is then (𝑈𝑎 – 𝑈𝑏 )⁄𝑞0 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 .
Then the potential 𝑉 of a single point charge is Eq. (10-20) divided by 𝑞0 :

1 𝑞
𝑉= (10-25)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

Where r is the distance from the point charge 𝑞 to the point at which the potential is
evaluated. If 𝑞 is positive, the potential that it produces is positive at all points; if 𝑞 is
negative, it produces a potential that is negative everywhere. In either case, 𝑉 is equal to zero
at 𝑟 = ∞, an infinite distance from the point charge.

Similarly, we divide Eq. (10-22) by 𝑞0 to find the potential due to a collection of point charges:

𝑈 1 𝑞𝑖
𝑉= = ∑ (10-26)
𝑞0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖
𝑖

In this expression, 𝑟𝑖 is the distance from the 𝑖𝑡ℎ charge, 𝑞𝑖 , to the point at which 𝑉 is
evaluated. The electric potential due to a collection of point charges is the scalar sum of the
potentials due to each charge. When we have a continuous distribution of charge along a line,
over a surface, or through a volume, we divide the charge into elements 𝑑𝑞, and the sum in
Eq. (10-24) becomes and integral:

1 𝑑𝑞
𝑉= ∫ (10-27)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

Where 𝑟 is the distance from the charge element 𝑑𝑞 to the field point where we are finding 𝑉.
The potential defined by Eqs. 10-26 and 10-27 is zero at points that are infinitely far away
from all the charges.

In some cases, in which the electric field is known or can be found easily, it is easier to
determine 𝑉 from 𝐸. The force 𝐹 on a test charge 𝑞0 can be written as 𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝐸, so from Eq.
10-16 the work done by the electric force as the test charge moves from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is given by

𝑏 𝑏
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = ∫ 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝑞0 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 (10-28)
𝑎 𝑎

233
Dividing this by 𝑞0 ,

𝑏 𝑏
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐸 cos 𝜙 𝑑𝑙 (10-29)
𝑎 𝑎

The value of 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 is independent of the path taken from 𝑎 to 𝑏. If

𝑏
the line integral ∫𝑎 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 is positive, the electric field foes positive
work on a positive test charge as it moves from 𝑎 to 𝑏. In this case
the electric potential energy decreases as the test charge moves, so
the potential energy per unit charge decreases as well, hence 𝑉𝑏 is
less than 𝑉𝑎 , and 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 is positive.

The unit of electric field can be expressed as 1 volt per meter (1

V/M), as well as 1 N/C. The magnitude of e of the electron charge
can be used to define a unit of energy that is useful in many
calculations. The quantity of one electron volt (1 eV) is the kinetic
Figure 10.11: Moving with
energy gained by an electron moving through a potential
the direction of E means
difference of one volt (1 V).
moving in the direction of
decreasing V, and moving
1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 𝑥10−19 𝐽 against the direction of E
means moving in the direction
10.7 Equipotential Surfaces of increasing V.

The potential at various points in an electric field can be represented graphically by

equipotential surfaces. An equipotential surface is a three-dimensional surface on which the
electric potential V is the same at every point. Field lines and equipotential surfaces are always
mutually perpendicular. In general, field lines are curves, and equipotentials are curved
surfaces.

When all charges are at rest, the surface of a conductor is always an equipotential surface,
and the electric field just outside a conductor must be perpendicular to the surface at every
point. We know that E = 0 everywhere inside the conductor, otherwise, charges would move.
It also follows that when all charges are at rest, the entire solid volume of a conductor is at
the same potential. No work is done to move a charge between two points on the same
equipotential surface.

Sample Problems

1. An electric dipole consists of point charge 𝑞1 = +12𝑛𝐶 and 𝑞2 =

−12𝑛𝐶 placed 10.0 cm apart.
(a) Compute the electric potential at point 𝑏.
(b) If a third charge 𝑞3 = 10𝑛𝐶 is placed at point 𝑏, compute
the total potential energy of the system.

Solution

a) At point 𝑎 we have 𝑟1 = 0.060 𝑚 and 𝑟2 = 0.040 𝑚,

1 𝑞𝑖 1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
𝑉𝑎 = ∑ = +
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
𝑖
12 𝑥10−9 𝐶
= (9.0 𝑥109 𝑁𝑚2 ⁄𝐶 2 )
0.060𝑚
9 2 2
(−12 𝑥10−9 𝐶)
+ (9.0 𝑥10 𝑁𝑚 ⁄𝐶 )
0.040𝑚
= 1800 𝑉 + (−2700 𝑉) = −900 𝑉

234
 b) The total potential energy of the system is,

1 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑗 1 (12 𝑥10−9 𝐶)(−12 𝑥10−9 𝐶) (12 𝑥10−9 𝐶)(10 𝑥10−9 𝐶)

𝑈= ∑ = [ +
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖𝑗 4𝜋𝜖0 0.10 𝑚 0.13 𝑚
𝑖<𝑗
(10 𝑥10−9 𝐶)(−12 𝑥10−9 𝐶)
+ ] = −1.30 𝑥10−5 𝐽
0.13 𝑚

2. Find the potential at a distance 𝑟 from a very long line of

charge with linear charge density (charge per unit length) 𝜆.

Solution

In both previous examples 2 and 4, we found that the electric

field at a radial distance r from a long straight-line charge has
only a radial component given by 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜆⁄2𝜋𝜖0 𝑟. We use this
expression to find the potential by integrating ⃗𝑬.

𝑏 𝑏 𝑟𝑏
𝜆 𝑑𝑟 𝜆 𝑟𝑏
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ = ln
𝑎 𝑎 2𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑎 𝑟 2𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑎

We set 𝑉𝑏 = 0 at point 𝑏 at an arbitrary but finite radial resistance 𝑟0 . Then the potential
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎 at point 𝑎 at a radial distance 𝑟 is given by 𝑉 = 0 = (𝜆⁄2𝜋𝜖0 )ln (𝑟0 ⁄𝑟) or

𝜆 𝑟0
𝑉= ln
2𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

10.8 Capacitors in Vacuum and with Dielectrics

Any two conductors separated by an insulator (or vacuum) form a capacitor. A

capacitor is a device that stores electric potential energy and electric charge. To store energy
in this device, transfer charge from one conductor to the other so that one has a negative
charge and the other has an equal amount of positive charge.

In circuit diagrams a capacitor is represented by either of these symbols,

Once the charges Q and -Q are established on the conductors, the battery is disconnected
giving a fixed potential difference Vab between the conductor that is just equal to the voltage
of the battery. The ratio of charge to potential difference is called the capacitance C of the
capacitor:

𝑄
𝐶= (10-30)
𝑉𝑎𝑏

The SI unit of capacitance is called one farad (1 F), one farad is equal to one coulomb per volt
(1 C/V). The capacitance is a measure of the ability of a capacitor to store energy.

The simplest form of capacitor consists of two parallel

conducting plates, each with area A, separated by a
distance d that is in vacuum. We call this arrangement a
parallel-plate capacitor. When the plates are charged, the
electric field is almost completely localized in the region
between the plates. The electric field given by 𝐸 = 𝜎/𝜖0 .
The surface charge density 𝜎 is equal to the magnitude of
Figure 10.12: Arrangement of
parallel-plate capacitors.
235
the total charge Q on each plate divided by the area A of the plate

𝜎 𝑄
𝐸= = (10-31)
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝐴

The field is uniform and the distance between the plates is 𝑑, so the potential difference
between the two plated is

𝑄𝑑
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝜖0 (10-32)
𝐴

From this we see that the capacitance 𝐶 of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum is

𝑄 𝐴
𝐶= = 𝜖0 (10-33)
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑑

For any capacitor in vacuum, the capacitance 𝐶 depends only on the shapes, dimensions, and
separation of the conductors that make up the capacitor. When matter is present between the
plates, its properties affect the capacitance.

Most capacitors have a nonconducting material, or dielectric, between their conducting

plates. Placing a solid dielectric between the plates of a capacitor serves three functions:
1. It solves the mechanical problem of maintaining two large metal sheets at a very small
separation without actual contact.
2. The dielectric increases the maximum possible potential difference between the
capacitor plates.
3. The capacitance of the capacitor of given dimensions is greater where is a dielectric
material in between then in vacuum.

The original capacitance 𝐶0 = 𝑄 ⁄𝑉0, and the capacitance with the dielectric present is 𝐶 = 𝑄 ⁄𝑉.
The charge q is the same in both cases. When the space between the plates is filled by the
dielectric, the ratio of C to C0 is called the dielectric constant of the material, K:

𝐶
𝐾= (10-34)
𝐶0

For vacuum K = 1 while for any material, K is a constant (see appendix). The permittivity of
the dielectric is given as

𝜖 = 𝐾𝜖0 (10-35)

The capacitance when the dielectric is present is given by

𝐴 𝐴
𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶0 = 𝐾𝜖0 =𝜖 (10-36)
𝑑 𝑑

In empty space where K=1, 𝜖 = 𝜖0 . Because K is a pure number, 𝜖 and 𝜖0 have the same units,
𝐶 2 ⁄𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 or 𝐹 ⁄𝑚.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The total work, W needed to build up charge q in a capacitor from 0 to a final value Q
is the same amount of work done in discharging the capacitor.
𝑊
1 𝑄 𝑄2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑞𝑑𝑞 = (10-37)
𝐶 𝑜 2𝐶
0

236
Charging a capacitor can be thought of as moving charge from one plate directly onto the
other plate through a potential difference V between the plates. Hence, the electric potential
energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, has a charge q and a potential difference V

𝑄2 1 2 1
𝑈= = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑄𝑉
2𝐶 2 2 (10-38)

Electric Field Energy

In a parallel plate capacitor with plate area A and separation distance d an electric
field is established due to the separation of charges. The energy required to build up this
electric field divided by the volume between the plates of the capacitor is called energy density

𝑈 1 𝐶𝑉 2
𝑢= =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2 𝐴𝑑 (10-39)

The energy density in a vacuum,

1
𝑢= 𝜖 𝐸2 (10-40)
2 0

This result indicates that empty space can contain energy.

10.9 Series and Parallel Capacitors

Capacitors are manufactured with certain standard capacitance and working voltages.
In many practical situations, you can obtain different values by combining capacitors. The
simplest combinations are a series and a parallel connection.

Capacitors in Series

Figure 10.13 is a schematic diagram of a series (a) Two capacitors in series.

connection. Two capacitors are connected in series by
conducting wires between points a and b. In a series
connection the magnitude of charge on all plates is the same.

𝑄 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = ⋯ = 𝑄𝑛 (10-41)

Following a common convention, we use the symbols 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 ,

and 𝑉 to denote the potential differences across the different
capacitors. The potential differences of the individual
capacitors add to give the total potential difference across the
(b) The equivalent single
series combination,
capacitor.

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛 (10-42)

The equivalent capacitance Ceq of the series combination is

then given as

1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+ (10-43)
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛

The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance of a series Figure 10.13: A series

combination equals the reciprocals of the individual connection of two capacitors.
capacitances. In a series connection the equivalent
capacitance is always less than any individual capacitance.

237
Capacitor in Parallel
(a) Two capacitors in parallel.
The arrangement shown in Figure 10.14 is called a
parallel connection. Two capacitors are connected in parallel
between points a and b. In a parallel connection the
potential difference for all individual capacitors is the same
and is equal to Vab = V.

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = ⋯ = 𝑉𝑛 (10-44)
(b) The equivalent single
capacitor.
The total charge Q of the combination, and thus the total
charge on the equivalent capacitor is,

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + ⋯ + 𝑄𝑛 (10-45)

For any number of capacitors in parallel,

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 (10-46)
Figure 10.14: A parallel
connection of two capacitors.
The equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination equals
the sum of the individual capacitances. In a parallel
connection the equivalent capacitance is always greater than any individual capacitance.

Sample Problems

1. Suppose the parallel plates in Fig. 10.12 each have an area of 2000 𝑐𝑚2 (2.00 𝑥10−1 𝑚2 ) and
are 1.00 𝑐𝑚 (1.00 𝑥10−2 𝑚) apart. We connect the capacitor to a power supply, charge it to a
potential difference 𝑉0 = 3.00 𝑘𝑉, and disconnect the power supply. We then insert a sheet
of insulating plastic material between the plates. We find that the potential difference
decreases to 1.00 𝑘𝑉 while the charge on each capacitor plate remains constant. Find (a)
the original capacitance 𝐶0 ; (b) the magnitude of charge 𝑄 on each plate; (c) the
capacitance 𝐶 after the dielectric is inserted; (d) the dielectric constant 𝐾 of the dielectric;
and (e) the permittivity 𝜖 of the dielectric.

Solution

a) With vacuum between the plates, 𝐾 = 1:

𝐴 2.00 𝑥10−1 𝑚2
𝐶0 = 𝜖0 = (8.854 𝑥10−12 𝐹 ⁄𝑚) = 1.77 𝑥10−10 𝐹 = 177 𝑝𝐹
𝑑 1.00 𝑥10−2 𝑚
b) The magnitude of the charge,

𝑄 = 𝐶0 ⁄𝑉0 = (1.77 𝑥10−10 𝐹)(3.00 𝑥103 𝑉) = 5.31 𝑥10−7 𝐶 = 0.531 𝜇𝐶

c) When the dielectric is inserted, Q is unchanged, but the potential difference decreases
to 1.00 𝑘𝑉. Hence, the new capacitance is
𝑄 5.31 𝑥10−7 𝐶
𝐶= = = 5.31 𝑥10−10 𝐹 = 531 𝑝𝐹
𝑉 1.00 𝑥103 𝑉
d) The dielectric constant is
𝐶 5.31 𝑥10−10 𝐹
𝐾= = = 3.00
𝐶0 1.77 𝑥10−10 𝐹
e) Using 𝐾 from part (d), the permittivity is
𝜖 = 𝐾𝜖0 = (3.00)(8.854 𝑥10−12 𝐶 2 ⁄𝑁𝑚2 ) = 2.66 𝑥10−11 𝐶 2 ⁄𝑁𝑚2

2. In the figure on the right, let 𝐶 = 4.00 𝜇𝐹 and 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = +52.0 𝑉. Calculate (a) the equivalent
capacitance of the entire network; (b) the charge on each capacitor; (c) the potential
difference across each capacitor; and (d) the potential difference between points 𝑎 and 𝑑.

238
Solution

We do parts (a), (b), and (c) together.

𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are in series and are equivalent to 𝐶12 ,

1 1 1 1 1
= + = + → 𝐶12 = 2.00 𝑥10−6 𝐹
𝐶12 𝐶1 𝐶2 4.00 𝑥10−6 𝐹 4.00 𝑥10−6 𝐹

𝐶12 and 𝐶3 are in parallel and are equivalent to 𝐶123 ,

𝐶123 = 𝐶12 + 𝐶3 = 2.00 𝑥10−6 𝐹 + 4.00 𝑥10−6 𝐹 = 6.00 𝑥10−6 𝐹

𝐶123 and 𝐶4 are in series and are equivalent to 𝐶1234 ,

𝐶1234 𝐶4 ( 6.00 𝑥10−6 𝐹)(4.00 𝑥10−6 𝐹)

𝐶1234 = = = 2.40 𝑥10−6 𝐹
𝐶123 + 𝐶4 6.00 𝑥10−6 𝐹 + 4.00 𝑥10−6 𝐹
𝑉1234 = 𝑉 = 28.0 𝑉
𝑄1234 = 𝐶1234 𝑉 = (2.40 𝑥10−6 𝐹)(28.0𝑉) = 67.2 𝜇𝐶

We now build back up the original circuit step by step,

𝐶1234 represents 𝐶123 and 𝐶4 in series where 𝑄123 = 𝑄4 = 𝑄1234 = 67.2 𝜇𝐶 then,

𝑄123 67.2 𝜇𝐶
𝑉123 = = = 11.2 𝑉
𝐶123 6.00 𝜇𝐹
𝑄4 67.2 𝜇𝐶
𝑉4 = = = 16.8 𝑉
𝐶4 4.00 𝜇𝐹

𝐶123 represents 𝐶12 and 𝐶3 in parallel where 𝑉123 = 𝑉12 = 𝑉3 = 11.2 𝑉 then,

𝑄3 = 𝐶3 𝑉3 = (4.00 𝜇𝐹)(11.2𝑉) = 44.8 𝜇𝐶

𝑄12 = 𝐶12 𝑉12 = (2.00 𝜇𝐹)(11.2𝑉) = 22.4 𝜇𝐶

𝐶12 represents 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 in series where 𝑄12 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 22.4 𝜇𝐶

𝑄1 22.4 𝜇𝐶
𝑉1 = = = 5.6 𝑉
𝐶1 4.00 𝜇𝐹
𝑄2 22.4 𝜇𝐶
𝑉2 = = = 5.6 𝑉
𝐶2 4.00 𝜇𝐹
c) 𝑉𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉3 = 11.2 𝑉

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 Exercises No. 10

1. Two point charges are placed on the x-axis as follows: charge 𝑞1 = 4.00 𝑛𝐶 is located at 𝑥 =
0.200 𝑚, and charge 𝑞2 = 5.00 𝑛𝐶 is at 𝑥 = −03200 𝑚. What is the magnitude and direction of
the total force exerted by these two charges on a negative point charge 𝑞 = −6.00 𝑛𝐶 that
is placed at the origin?
2. Two particles with equal charge amounts 2.0 𝑥10−7 𝐶 but
opposite signs are held 15 𝑐𝑚 apart. What is the
magnitude and direction of the electric field at the point
midway between the charges?
3. A rectangular sheet of sides 0.400 m and 0.600 m is
immersed in a uniform electric field of magnitude 75.0
N/C. The field is directed at 20o from the sheet. Find the
magnitude of the electric flux through the sheet
4. A positive charge Q is distributed uniformly throughout an insulating sphere of radius R.
What is the magnitude of the electric field at any point (a) outside the sphere, and (b)
inside the sphere?
5. A point charge q₁=4.00nC is placed at the origin, and a second point charge q₂=-3.00nC is
placed on the x-axis at x=+20.0cm. A third point charge q₃=2.00nC is to be placed on the
x-axis between q₁ and q₂. Let the potential energy of the three charges be zero when they
are infinitely far apart.
(a) What is the potential energy of the system of the three charges if q₃ is placed at
x=+10.0cm?
(b) Where should q₃ be placed to make the potential energy of the system equal to zero?
6. A total electric charge of 3.50nC is distributed uniformly over the surface of a metal
sphere with a radius of 24.0cm. if the potential is zero at a point at infinity, find the value
of the potential at the following distances from the center of the sphere
(a) 48.0cm (b) 24.0cm (c) 12.0cm
7. An air capacitor consisting of two closely spaced parallel plates has a capacitance of 1000pF.
The charge on each plate is 1 micro coulomb. (a) What is the potential difference between
the plates? (b) If the charge is kept constant, what will be the potential difference between
the plates if the separation is doubled? (c) How much work is required to double the
separation?
8. Consider a capacitor made of two 0.05 m2 plates separated by 0.5 mm. If the capacitance
is 3.0nF, what is the dielectric constant, , of the material between the plates?
9. A 3.0 F and a 5.0 F capacitor are connected in
series with a 12 V battery.
(a) Find the equivalent capacitance.
(b) Find the charge on each capacitor.
(c) Find the potential drop (or voltage) across
each capacitor.
10. Figure in the right shows a system of four capacitors,
where the potential difference across ab is 50.0 V.
(a) Find the equivalent capacitance of this system between a
and b.
(b) How much charge is stored by this combination of
capacitors?
(c) How much charge is stored in each of the 10.0-µF and
the 9.0-µF capacitors?

Answers:

1. 2.4 𝑥10−6 𝑁𝒊̂ 6. a) 65.6V b) 131.3V c) 131.3V

2. 6.4 𝑥105 𝑁⁄𝐶 7. a) 103 V, b) 2 x 103 V,c)5 x 10-4 J
3. 6.16 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 8. 3.4
4. 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
1 𝑄
; 𝐸𝑖𝑛 =
1 𝑄
9. a) 1.875 µF, b) 22.5 µC, c) 7.5 V, 4.5 V
2
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅3
−7
10. a) 3.47 µF, b) 174 µC, c) 174 µC
5. − 3.60 10 J ; 0.075 m or 0.358 m

240