Electrostatics and Electric Charges

Electrostatics is the study of all phenomena associated with electric charges at rest.

Electric Charge

Electric charges are usually represented by q. The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C ),
named after French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, who made important
discoveries in electricity. A coulomb is approximately equal to 6.24 x 1018 e. Equivalently,

1 e = 1.602 x 10 -19 C.

Thus, the charges of proton and electron are 1.602 x 10-19 C and -1.602 x 10 19 C,
respectively.

*Memorize the mass and charge of the subatomic particles in preparation for future
problerm-solving activities.

In the atomic level, an electric charge determines the electric interaction and magnetic
interaction between subatomic particles and other charged particles. This means that they
are affected by electromagnetism. This interaction between charges is summarized in the
phrase “like charges repel, unlike charges attract.”

Macroscopically, a body is electrically charged if the number of positives charges it has

is not equal to the number of the negative charges. In other words, the charge of a particle
depends on the sum of its electrical charges.

How to compute the charge of an ion?

Example 1
 Compute the charge of an ion with a charge of +3.

Conductors and Insulators

Charges exist in materials and move through them. However, the ease with which
charges move through them differs. Conductivity is the measure of the ease at which an
electric charge moves through a material.

Materials that readily allow the flow of charges through them are
called conductors. Metals are good conductors because they have plenty of free
electrons that can easily move in the material. Insulators are materials that resist the
flow of charges. Thus, the conductivity of insulators is low.

Semiconductors are intermediate between conductors and insulators. They are not as
conductive as metals, but they are more conductive than insulators.

Superconductors offer practically no resistance to the flow of charges below some

critical temperatures. A current in a superconductor can keep flowing without any decay.

Opposite charges in an atom attract each other. If the positive charges of an atom outnumber the negative charges,
the atom is a positive ion. If there are more negative charges than positive charges in an atom, the atom is a
negative ion.

Self-Check!

What is the charge of each atom if it comprises the following particles?

a. 5 electrons and 6 protons Answer: +1

b. 25 protons and 26 electrons Answer: -1

c. 5 electrons and 5 protons Answer: 0 (Neutral)

Processes of Charging

a. Charging by Friction results when two different materials are rubbed together. The
material that will either become positively charged or negatively charged depends on its
electron affinity.

Electron affinity is a measure of the attraction of an atom to an electron, or the tendency

of an atom to become negatively charged. Materials with higher electron affinity are
capable of gaining electrons from those of lower electron affinity. Scientists have come
up with a ranking of some common materials based on their affinity. This ranking is called
the triboelectric series.

b. Charging by Conduction requires physical contact between a charging body and a

neutral body. The sign of the charge acquired by the neutral body is the same with that
of the charged body.
c. Charging by Induction In induction, the body to be charged is brought very near the
charging body. The negative charges on the neutral body are attracted to the charging
body if the latter is positive. They are repelled from the charging body if it is negatively
charged. This effect is known as polarization. The neutral body is then grounded either
by touching it or by using a wire.

Charging an object by induction may also occur through a process called

grounding. Grounding is a process similar to conduction, but it includes a grounding wire
that connects the neutral body to the ground, which is a reservoir of charge.
Conservation of Charges

The principle of conservation of charge states that the total charge of an isolated system
remains constant. It means that charges can neither be created nor destroyed. In any
charging process, charges are merely transferred from one body to another.

Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb discovered that the magnitude of the electric force between two charged
particles is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This statement is
called Coulomb’s law. Mathematically, this can be written as

Example 1

What is the electrostatic force of attraction between a -6.0 x 10-6 C charge and a 4.0 x 10-
6 C charge if they are they are separated by a distance of 3.0 meters (m)?

Solution

Example 2

Two identically charged one-peso coins are 1.5 m apart on a table. What is the charge of
one of the coins if each of them experiences a repulsive force of 2.0 N?
Electric Field, Electric Flux, and Electric Potential

Superposition Principle

Electric forces obey the superposition principle. The superposition principle states that
each charge will exert a force on another charge as if no other charges are present. The
total force that a particular charge experiences due to a collection of charges is the vector
sum of all the individual forces.

Example 1

Consider the following three points charges arranged along the x-axis:

a. q1 has a charge of -8.0 C and is located at x = -3.0 m

b. q2 carries a charge of 3.0 C and is located at the origin

c. q3 has a charge of -4.0 C and is located at x = 3.0 m

What is the overall force experienced by q2?

Note that both q1 and q2 will equally attract q2. This implies that q2 will be suspended at
the origin and will experience a net force (resultant force) of 0 N.F1,2 can be interpreted
as – 0.024 N (going to the left) and F2,3 as 0.012 N (going to the right). By the
superposition principle, you have

Electric Field

A space surrounding a charged body is called an electric field. An electric field causes
any charged particle placed in it to experience an electric force. Every charge has an
electric field associated with it.

Electric Lines of Force

Michael Faraday, an English scientist who made important discoveries in electricity and
magnetism, introduced the use of electric lines of force to map out an electric field. An
electric field can be graphically represented using electric field lines. The density or
thickness of these lines is directly proportional to the strength of the electric field at any
region in space. If the field lines are close to each other, the electric field is stronger.
See page 23 of your book for the discussion of the properties of lines of force.

Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law

Electric field is represented by arrows to indicate the flow or movement from a positive
charge or to a negative charge. This flow of an electric field through a given area is
measurable using electric flux. Mathematically, the equation used to compute for electric
flux is as follows:

The unit used to measure electric flux is volt-meter (V-m) or newton meters squared per
coulomb . Note that this equation is useful for both the uniform electric field and the area.

Example 1

What is the electric flux for the following sets of variables?

For a closed surface, electric flux is calculated using a technique or law called Gauss’s
law. Gauss’s law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the
net charge inside the surface divided by the permittivity of free space.

Applications of Electrostatics

a. Atomic Models

Atoms are made up of electric charges. The interaction between these charges can
predict how each atom will behave.

Consider the Bohr model of a hydrogen atom. An electron orbits a proton at a radius of
5.3 x 10-11 m. What is the force of attraction between the said particles? How fast is the
electron orbiting the proton? Consider the mass of the electron to be 9.1 x 10-31 kg.

The force of attraction between the electron and the proton is approximately 8.2 x 10-8 N.
This implies that the proton is pulling the electron toward it with a force as computed. This
force is referred to a s the centripetal force, which is the force experienced by a body in
uniform circular motion as it revolves around its orbit.

Recall the equation for centripetal force.

The electron orbits the proton with a velocity of approximately 2.2 x 106m/s. This high
velocity explains why the orbits of electrons are represented as clouds around the nucleus
of an atom. The clouds represent the area in the atom where there is a high probability of
finding an electron.

b. Electrical Breakdown of Air

The electrical breakdown of air is responsible for the formation of lightning and the
presence of other electrical charges in the atmosphere.

c. Charged Pendulums

d. Control of Electron Beams and Proton Beams

In electron beam machining, a narrow beam of high-velocity electrons are directed toward
an object. This setup creates heat that could vaporize the material. Thus, electron beam
machining is useful in the accurate cutting of metals. Electron beams are also used to
produce X-rays, television screens, and oscilloscope images.

Proton beams, on the other hand, have found their use in cancer treatment and other
non-invasive disease treatments.

e. Ink-jet Printers

Ink-jet printers also make use of the principles of electrostatics to work. An ink-jet printer
charges the ink and uses the principle of electrostatic repulsion to propel the charged ink
toward the paper or material to be printed. The computer from where the file is to be
printed provides the codes for the head of the printer and ensures precise repulsions to
the charged ink particulates.
Electric Potential

Electric potential is the amount of electric potential energy per unit charge. This is
equivalent to the amount of work needed to move a charge from one reference point to
another.

Electric potential is mathematically described using this equation:

Applications of Electric Potential

a. Electron Guns in CRT TV Picture Tubes

b. Van de Graaff Generators