Electric Charges and Field

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
That branch of physics which deals with stationary charge is called electrostatics. In this
branch we study the forces, fields and potentials associated with static charge.
Electrification of objects (Charging of objects):

When some materials like glass, ebonite, sulphur etc. are rubbed with other materials then they acquire
a property of attracting light bodies such as pieces of paper, straws etc. On acquiring this property, the
material is said to be electrified (charged).
Frictional electricity (Static electricity):
The cause due to which electrification of objects is developed is called frictional electricity. Because the
charge acquired by the material cannot flow from one point to other therefore the frictional electricity
is also called static electricity.
Charge:
It is one of the basic properties of the elementary particles of matter giving rise to all electric and
magnetic forces and interaction.
 There are two types of charges positive and negative.

 Like charges repel to each other whereas unlike charges attracts to each other.
 Charge is a scalar quantity.
 Accelerated charge radiates energy
Units of charge:
S.I. Unit is coulomb (C) & cgs Unit is stat coulomb or electrostatic unit (e.s.u.)
1 Coulomb = 106 c (micro Coulomb)  1 c = 10-6C
1 Coulomb = 109nc (neno Coulomb)  1 nc = 10-9C
1 Coulomb = 3 x 109 esu (Stat Coulomb)
Electromagnetic Unit (1 emu) = 3 x 1010 esu = 10 coulomb
Methods of charging:
There are four methods by which charges can redistribute themselves to build up static electricity: by
friction, by conduction, by induction and by polarization.
Charging of objects by friction:

When two bodies are rubbed together then net flow of electrons takes place from one body to other.
The body which loses the electrons becomes positively charged and the body which receives the
electrons gets negatively charged.
Positively Glass rod Woolen cloth Cat skin Dry hair
charged
Negatively Silk cloth Amber, Rubber,

Ebonite rod Comb
charged Plastic
 The net transfer of electrons take place from the object having lower work function to the other
having comparatively higher work function.
 If the object acquires negative charge, its mass is increased and vice versa.
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Electron theory of electrification (Charging):

A body can be charged by the transfer of electrons. Every material is composed of atoms. In an atom,
number of protons is equal to the number of electrons and hence atom is electrically neutral.
When somehow the electrons are removed from an atom, the atom becomes positively charged. Hence,
a positively charged body means deficiency of electrons in its atoms.
Similarly, when somehow the electrons are provided to an atom, the atom becomes negatively charged.
Hence, a negatively charged body means efficiency of electrons in its atoms.
 Protons are not responsible for the transfer of charges (by friction) as they are bounded by nuclear
force. This force is much stronger then the force between the electrons and nucleus.
Common examples of charging by friction:

 Person walking bare feted on carpet get electrified.
 Comb running through dry hairs get electrified.
 During landing or taking off, the tyres of an air aircraft get electrified. Hence tyres of aircraft are
made slightly conducting s that the charge appearing due to friction may leak to ground.
Elementary Charge:
The least possible charge on any charged object is called Elementary Charge. The elementary charge is
equal to charge of an electron. The value of elementary charge in cgs unit is 4.8 x 10 -10 stat coulombs
and in S.I. unit is 1.6 x 10-19C.
Additivity of Charges:
Charge is a scalar quantity. The total charge of a system of charged objects is numerically equal to the
algebraic sum of the charges of constituting objects.
Quantization of Charge:
The Charge of any charged object is Quantized i.e. the charge of any charged object is integral multiple
of the charge of e- i.e. charge on any charged object is Q   ne
Where n is the number of e- loosed or acquired by the body. We can ignore quantization of electric
charge when dealing with macroscopic i.e. large scale charges.
 At microscopic level we cannot ignore quantization of charge. However at macroscopic level,

number of charges are very large and need not to be counted. In this case quantization of charge can
be ignored.
 We do not consider the charges of quarks to be elementary charges as they do not exist in Free State.
Conservation of Charge:
The total charge of an isolated system always remains constant i.e. Charge can neither be created nor
destroyed of an isolated system or object.
a. In pair production the  ray photon metalizes in to an electron and the positron such that the total
charge remains conserved.  = e- + e+
b. In the annihilation of an e- and a proton, two  ray photons are produced such that the total charge
remains conserved. e- + e+   + 
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c. Radioactive Decay of uranium nucleus 92U238  90Th234 + 2He4
d. During friction of two objects, total +ive charge acquired by the first object is equal to total –ive
charge acquired by the second object and hence the total charge of the system after friction remains
same as that it was before the friction.
Invariance of Charge:
Charge carried by a body does not depend not upon velocity of the body. i.e. charge is invariant.
 When a charged body is thrown with very high speed then its charge remains same but its charge
density is affected.
Earthing or Grounding of Charge:

The conductor used to connect the metallic body of an electric appliance and earth is called earth wire
or ground wire. Metallic bodies of all electrical appliances are earthed from the safty point of view of
the appliance as well as the user. The supplier ensures the availability of a third wire called the earth
wire to the consumers. However, the consumers are advised to have their own earthling. A deep pit is
dug in the earth till soft most earth is obtained. A thick metallic plate connected to a thick conducting
ground wire is put in to this pit.
Charging of objects by Induction

The process of electrification of an initially uncharged conducting body by bringing a charged body
close to it but not making actual contact is known as charging by induction.
Process of charging by induction:
A charged plastic rod is brought close to the sphere. Free electrons in the sphere move away due to
repulsion and piles up at the other end of the sphere. The near end becomes positively charged due to
deficit of electrons. This distribution of charge ceases, when the net force on the free electron inside the
metal is zero and this happens instantly.
When the sphere is connected to a conducting wire it gets earthed and the electrons flow to the ground
and the positive charge remains there due to the attractive force of the external charge.
When the external conductor is removed, the positive charge remains in the sphere making it a
positively charged object.
Inducing charge:
The charges on a body that induces charge in another uncharged body is called inducing charge.
Induced charge:
The charge developed in an initially uncharged conducting body by bringing a charged body close to it but not
making actual contact is known as induced charge.
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Induced charge is of two types:
1. Bound charge:
The charge developed at the end closer to the inducing charge are known as bound charge.
2. Free charge:
The charge developed at the far end to the inducing charge is known as the inducing charge.
 The free charge can freely flow if they are provided any conducting path
Note:
 If a positively charged rod is brought closer to a sphere, the sphere acquires negative charge. We
therefore see that rods induce opposite charges on metal surface.
 Amount of induced charge ≤ Inducing charge, (equally holds only for metals)
 Two likely charged bodies can attract to each other if the magnitude of their charges is much
different.
Charging by Conduction:
Charging by conduction of a body is the process in which a body is charged by putting in contact with
another charged body either directly or by means of a conductor.
 When two identical conductors having different charges are brought in electrical contact, then their
charge is equally distributed.
 If two conductors having unequal charges are brought in contact, then charge flows from the
conductor having high potential to low potential up to when they acquire same potential.
 Entire charge of a conductor can be transferred to another by keeping it in a cavity of other in
electrical contact.
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Continuous distribution of charges:

A system of closely spaced electric charges forms a continuous charge distribution. Here we will
discuss three types of distribution of charges.
 Linear charge distribution:
When charge is uniformly distributed over a line (may be straight or curved), then the distribution
is said linear charge distribution.
The charge per unit length of an object is called Linear

Charge Density of that object.
q
i.e. λ cm -1
l
If the wire has uniform charge density then
dq
λ cm-1  dq = dl
dl
Then Total Charge on the object is,
q = dl
 Surface charge distribution:
The charge per unit area of a body is defined as Surface density of
q
that body. i.e.  cm- 2
A
If the body has uniform charge density then, q = σ dA 

 Volume charge distribution:
The Charge per unit Volume of an object is called Volume Charge Density
q
of that object. i.e. 
v

If the object has uniform charge density then, q  ρ dv
Applications of electrostatics
1. Components like capacitors work on the principle of electrostatics.
2. Atomic structure can be explained on the basis of electrostatics.
3. Using electrostatic principles, path of the charges can be changed and the charges can be accelerated
also.
4. Sensitive instruments are protected from external electric fields with the help of electrostatic
shielding.
5. Natural phenomena like lightning and thunders can be explained by using the knowledge of
electrostatics.
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Exercise-01 Basic properties of charge
1. How can you charge a metal sphere positively without touching it?
2. How can you transfer total charge of a body to other body?
3. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth it gets positively charged while ebonite rod gets
negatively charged on rubbing with silk cloth? Explain.
9
4. If 10 electrons move out of a body to another body every second, how much time is required to
get a total charge of 1 C on the other body?
5. A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of 3 107 C.
(a) Estimate the number of electrons transferred (from which to which?)
(b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool to polythene?
6. When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, charges appear on both. A similar phenomenon is
observed with many other pairs of bodies. Explain how this observation is consistent with the law
of conservation of charge.
7. Explain the meaning of the statement ‘electric charge of a body is quantized
8. Why can one ignore quantization of electric charge when dealing with macroscopic (large scale)
charge?
9. How does the speed of an electrically charged particle affect its mass and charge?
10. How will the radius of a flexible ring change if it is given positive charge?
11. A comb run through one’s dry hair attracts small bits of paper. Why? What happens if the hair is
wet or if it is a rainy day?
12. Ordinary rubber is an insulator. But special rubber tyres of aircraft are made slightly conducting.
Why it is necessary?
13. Vehicles carrying inflammable materials usually have metallic ropes touching the ground during
motion. Explain why?
14. A bird perches on a bare high-power line, and nothing happens to the bird. A man standing on the
ground touches the same line and gets a fetal shock. Why?
15. If you walk across a nylon rug and then touch a large metal object such as a door- knob, you may
get a spark and a shock. Why does this tend to happen more on dry days then on humid days?
16. The free electrons in a metal are gravitationally attracted towards the earth. Why then do not they
all settle to the bottom of the conductor, like sediment setting to the bottom of a river?
17. Two identical metal objects are mounted on insulating stands. Describe how you could place
charges of opposite sign but exactly equal magnitudes on the two objects.
18. Is it possible to have a charge of 4.0X10-19 C on a body?
19. What is the least value of electric charge available in free State? (Ans: 1.6 X 10-19 C)
20. What is meant by conservation of charge? Give examples.
21. What does Q1+Q2 = 0 tells us about the charges?
22. Can a charged body attract to another uncharged body? (Ans: Yes)
23. Can a charged body attract to another likely charged body? (Ans: yes)
24. A metallic spherical shell has an inner radius R1 and outer radius R2. A charge Q is placed at the
centre of the spherical cavity. What will be surface charge density on (i) the inner surface, and (ii)
 
the outer surface?  Ans : (i) Q 2 (ii) Q 2 
 4 R1 4 R2 
25. Two concentric metallic spherical shells of radii R and 2R are given charges Q1 and Q2 respectively.
The surface charge densities on the outer surfaces of the shells are equal. Determine the ratio
ofQ1:Q2. (Ans: 1:4)
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Coulomb’s Law:
According to this law, "the electrostatic force between two stationary point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them and it acts along the line joining the two charges”.
1
i.e. F  q1 q2 and F α
r2
By combining we have
q1q 2
F 
r2
1 q1q 2
F
4 0 r 2
1
Where,  9 109 Nm2C 2 is proportionality constant and 0  8.85 1012 C2 N1m2 is permitivityof free space
4 0
 Permittivity describes the easiness or difficulty with which a material allows the electric lines of
force to pass through it.
Points to remember:
1. Columbic force between the charges in a medium other than air:
In this condition columbic force between the charges is written as
1 q1q 2
F
4 0 K r 2
Where K is dielectric constant of the intervening medium
2. Definition of dielectric constant (Relative permittivity):

Dielectric constant of a medium is the relative permittivity of that medium i.e. the ratio of
permittivity of a medium to the permittivity of free space is defined as relative permittivity or
Dielectric constant of the medium i.e.
Permittivity of the medium m
K r  
Absolute Permittivity 0
 Dielectric constant of a medium decreases with increase in temperature.
 Dielectric constants of some materials:
Air or vacuum: K=1 Paper: K=3.7 Water: K = 80
Wax: K= 2.0 Mica: K = 7 to 10 Metal; K = infinity
3. Definition of dielectric constant in terms of electrostatic force:

Let two charges q1 and q2 are placed r distance apart in air then electrostatic force between them is,
1 q1.q 2
Fa  ................. (A)
4 0 K r 2
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Now let the system is placed in a medium of dielectric constant K then force between them
1 q1.q 2
Fm 
4 0 k r 2 ................. (B)
eq( A) F
 a K
eq( B) Fm
i.e. The dielectric constant of a medium is the ratio of force b/w any two charges in air to the force
between the same charges in medium at same distance apart.
4. Nature of columbic forces:

If Q1Q2  0  Q1 & Q2 are of same polarity  Re pulsion
If Q1Q2  0  Q1 & Q2 are of opposite polarity  Attraction
If Q1  Q2  0  Q1  Q2  Re pulsion
5. Graph between F and 1/r2:
6. If a dielectric slab of thickness’’ is placed between two charges, then the force between the charges
is
1 q1 q 2
F , Where, r  d  t  t r
4 0 r 2
7. If two charges placed in air at a distance r from each other are placed in a medium of dielectric
constant k, then they must be separated by a distance R so that the force between them remains
same in both the cases, where Rr/ K
Properties of Coulomb’s force:
1. Columbic forces may be of attraction (unlike charges) and repulsion (like charges).
2. Columbic forces are much stronger than gravitational forces.
3. Columbic forces are mutual forces.
4. Columbic forces are central forces. They act along the line joining the centre of charges.
5. Columbic force between any two charges of a system does not depend on the presence of other
charges of the system. i.e columbic force is a two-body interaction.
6. Coulomb's force obeys inverse square law.
Limitations of Coulomb’s force:
 It is an experimental law.
 It is not valid for distances of 10-15m.
 It is applicable up to few km only
 It is medium dependent law
 It is not a universal law.
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Vector Form of Coulomb's Law:

1. If q1 and q2 are of same sign (q1 q2 > 0):
In this condition, the force on charge (1) due to second
1 q1q2 1 q1q2
F12  ˆ
r  r21 ....... (A)
4 0 r 2 4 0 r 3
21
And the force on charge (2) due to charge (1)
1 q1q2 1 q1q2
F21  rˆ12  r12 ......... (B)
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 3
2. If q1 and q2 are of opposite sign (q1 q2 < 0):

In this condition, the force on charge (1) due to second
1 q1q2 1 q1q2
F12  rˆ12  r12 ....... (A)
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 3
And the force on charge (2) due to charge (1)
1 q1q2 1 q1q2
F21  rˆ12  r12 ......... (B)
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 3
To show that Coulomb's law agrees with Newton's third law:

1 q1q2
From equation (1) we have F12  rˆ21 ................ (1)
4 0 r 2
 
But We have, r12  (r2  r1 )  (r1  r2 ) r12  r21 or rˆ12   rˆ12
1 q1q2 1 q1q2  
Then F12  (- rˆ12 )   ( rˆ12 )  F12  F21
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2
Hence, we can say Coulomb's law obeys Newton's 3rd Law.
Superposition Principle applied to Columbic force:
The principle states that "when a number of charges are interacting, the resultant force on a particular
charge is given by the vector sum of the forces produced by the individual charges".
n
Fi   Fij  ( Fi1  Fi 2 .................. Fij )
j 1 i j
j i
 If the net force acting on a charge of the system is zero then that charge of the system will be at
equilibrium.
 If the net force acting on each charge of the system is zero then the system will be at equilibrium.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 9

Exercise-02 Coulomb’s Law
Very short answer type questions

1. What is the value of electrical permittivity of free space? (Ans: 8.85 1012 C 2 N 1m 2 )
2. Dielectric constant of water is 80. What is its permittivity? (Ans: 7.08 1010 C 2 N 1m2 )
3. What is the relevance of large value of K (=80) for water?
Ans: When a substance is placed in water, the binding force between the ions of the substance
becomes (1/80) times to the force between the ions in air. That is force of attraction between the ions
decreases. Hence water acts as a solvent.
4. Plot a graph between force two charges and dielectric constant of the medium between them,
keeping separation between the charges same.
5. Why Coulomb’s law is not universal law? (Ans: Because it depends on the nature of the medium in
which charges are placed. Moreover, this law is valid for point charges at rest or relatively at rest)
6. Calculate Columbic force between two Alfa particles separated by a distance 3.2 X 10-15 m.
(Ans: 90 N)
7. Plot a graph between F and 1/r . 2
8. Explain why electrostatic force between two charges is central force?

9. Two-point charges q1 and q2 are placed close to each other. What is the nature of force between the
charges when (a) q1q2 > 0 (b) q1q2 < 0 (c) q1 + q2 = 0?
10. Force between two-point charges kept at a distance d apart in air is F. If these charges are kept at
the same distance in water, how does the force between them changes? (Ans: F/80)
11. Two equal balls having equal positive charge ‘q’ coulomb are separated by insulating string of equal
length. What would be the effect on the force when a plastic sheet is inserted between the two?
(Ans: force will reduce)
12. What are the limitations of Coulomb’s law?
13. Two small balls, each carrying charge +q are connected by a non-conducting string of length l.
Calculate the tension in the string.
14. What is the force between two small charged spheres having charges of 2 107 C & 3 107 C
placed 30 cm apart in air? (Ans: 6 X 1011 N)
15. Calculate the distance between two protons such that the electrical force between them is equal to
the weight of either. (Ans 12 cm)
16. Consider three charged bodies A, B and C. If A and B repel each other and A attracts C, what is the
nature of the force between B and C. (Ans: Attraction)
17. Two electrically charged particles having charges of different magnitudes when placed at a distance
‘d’ from each other experience a force of attraction ‘F’. These particles are put in contact and again
placed at same distance apart from each other. What is the nature of new force between them? Is
the magnitude of force of interaction between them now more or less then F?
(Ans: Repulsion, More or less depends on the magnitudes of the charges)
Theoretical questions
1. State and explain Coulomb’s law in electrostatics. State characteristic properties of electrostatic
forces. Also write the limitations of Coulomb’s law.
2. Write the vector form of Coulomb’s law. Two-point charges q1 and q2 are located at r1 and r2
respectively. Use coulomb’s law to prove that the forces on the two charges are of action and
reaction.
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Numerical and reasoning questions

1. The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge 0.4  C due to another small sphere of charge
0.8  C in air is 0.2 N. (a) what is the distance between the two spheres? (b) What is the force on
the second sphere due to the first?
2. Two extremely small charged copper spheres have their centers separated by a distance of 50 cm in
vacuum.
a. What is the mutual force of electrostatic repulsion if, the charge on each is 6.5 X 10-7 C?
b. What will be the force of repulsion if
i. The charges on the spheres are doubled and their separation is halved?
ii. The two spheres are placed in water (K=80)?
Ans: (a) 1.521 X10-2 N (b) 0.24 N, 1.9 X 10-4 N.
3. Force of attraction between two-point charges placed at distance d is F. What distance apart should
they be kept in the same medium so that force between them is (a) F/3 (b) 3F (Ans: 3 d, d / 3 )
4. Plot a graph showing the variation of Coulomb’s force versus (1/r2); where r is the distance between
the two charges, ( 1 C , 2  C ) and ( 2  C , 3 C ). Interpret the graph obtained.
3. Two identical insulated charged copper spheres A and B having same charge 6.5 107 C have their
centers separated by a distance of 50 cm. A third sphere of the same size but uncharged is brought
in contact with the first, then brought in contact with the second, and finally removed from both.
What is the new force of repulsion between A and B? (Ans: 5.7 X 10-3 N)
4. A certain charge Q is divided in to two parts q and (Q-q). How the charges Q and q be related so
that when q and (Q-q) placed at a certain distance apart, experience maximum electrostatic
repulsion? (Ans: Q = 2q)
5. Estimate the acceleration of electron and proton due to electrical force of their mutual attraction,
when they are 1 angstrom apart. (Ans ae = 2.5 X 1022 ms-2 and ap =1.4 X1019ms-2)
6. Two small spheres spaced 20 cm apart have equal charge. How many excess electrons must be
present on each sphere if the magnitude of the force of repulsion between them is 4.57 X 10-21 N.
7. Two-point charges q1 and q2 are 3 meter apart and their combined charge is 20  C .If one repels the
other with a force of 0.075 N, What are the two charges? ( Ans : 15 C ,5 C )
8. Two positive charges distant 0.1 m apart, repel each other with a force of 18 N. If the sum of the
charges be 9 micro coulomb, then calculate their separate values. ( Ans : 3 C , 6  C )
9. A pith ball of mass 9X10-5 kg carries a charge of 5 micro coulomb. What must be the magnitude and
sign of the charge on a pith ball B held 2 cm directly above the pith ball A remains stationary? (Ans:
7.84 pC, sign opposite to that of A)
10. A free pith ball A of 8 g carries a positive charge of 5 X 10-8C. What must be the nature and
magnitude of the charge that should be given to a second pith ball B fixed 5 cm below the former
ball so that the upper ball is stationary? (Ans: 4.36X 10-7 C positive)
11. The sum of two point charges is 7  C . They repel each other with a force 1 N when kept 30 cm
apart in free space. Calculate the value of each charge. ( Ans : q1  5C , q2  2C )
12. Two-point charges q1  5 106 C and q2  3 106 C are located at (1,3,2) m and (3,5,1) m
respectively. Find F12 and F21 using vector form of Coulomb’s law.
 
3 ˆ ˆ ˆ) N and F  (5 103 )(2iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ) N 

 Ans : F12  (5  10 )(2i  2 j  k 12 
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Exercise-03 Superposition principle applied to Coulomb’s Law
1. Two similarly and equally charged identical metal spheres A and B repel each other with a force of
2x 10-5 N. A third identical uncharged sphere C is touched with A and then placed at the midpoint
between A and B. Calculate the net electric force on C. Given distance between A and B is 50 cm.
2. Equal charges each of 20μc are placed at x= 0, 2, 4,8,16 cm on X axis. Find the force experienced by
the charge at x=2 cm.
3. Four point charges q A  2C , qB  5 C , qC  2C , & qD  5 C are located at the corners of a
square ABCD of side 10 cm. what is the force on a charge of 1  C placed at the centre of the square?
4. Consider three charges q1 , q2 , q3 each equal to q at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle of side l. what is the force on a charge Q (with the same
sign as q) placed at the centroid of the triangle as shown in figure?
5. Consider the charge q, q and –q placed at the vertices of an equilateral

triangle, as shown in figure. What is the force on each charge?
6. Five point charges, each of charge +q are placed on five vertices of a regular hexagon of side ‘l’. Find
the magnitude of the resultant force on a charge –q placed at the centre of hexagon.
1 q2
Ans : F 
4 0 l 2
7. Four point charges Q, q , Q and q are placed at the corners of a square of side a as
shown in the figure. Find the resultant electric force on a charge Q.
1 Q Q 
Ans : F  2 
 2q 
4 0 a  2 
8. Three point charges q, -4q and 2q are placed at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle ABC of side l as shown in the figure. Obtain the expression for the
magnitude of the resultant electric force acting on charge q.
1  2 3 q2 
Ans : F   
4 0  l 2 
9. Three point charges of 2  C ,  3 C and  3 C are kept at the vertices

A,B and C of an equilateral triangle as shown. What would be the sign
and magnitude of charge to be placed at the midpoint m of side BC so
that charge at A remains in equilibrium?
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 12

10. Three point charges +q each are kept at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’. Determine
the magnitude and sign of the charge to be kept at the centroid of the triangle so that the charges at
the vertices remain in equilibrium. (Ans: Q = - q/3)
11. Two fixed point charge 4Q and 2Q are separated by a distance x. Where the third point charge ‘q’
should be placed for it to be in equilibrium. (Ans: a=0.59x)
12. Two fixed point charges +4e and +e units are separated by a distance ‘a’ where should the third point
charge be placed for it to be equilibrium. (Ans: x=2a/3 or 2a)
13. A charge q is placed at the centre of the line joining two equal charges Q. Show that the system of
three charges will be in equilibrium if q= - Q/4.
14. Two-point charges of charge values Q and q are placed at distance x and x/2 respectively from a
third charge of charge value 4q all charges being in same straight line. Calculate the magnitude and
nature of charge Q such that the net force experienced by the charge q is zero. (Ans: Q = 4q)
15. Two charges of +Q units are placed along a line. A third charge q is placed between them. At what
position and for what values of q, will the system be in equilibrium? (Ans: q = -Q/4 and x = r/2)
16. Three-point charges q1, q2, q3, are in line at equal distances. q2 and q3 are opposite in sign. Find
magnitude and sign of q1 if the net force on q3 is zero.
Exercise 04: Additional exercise (coulomb’s law)
1. Two small spheres each having mass m kg and charge q coulomb are separated from a point by
insulating threads each length ‘l’ meter long but of negligible mass. If θ is the angle, each string
makes with the vertical when equilibrium has been attained, Show that
q2  (4mgl 2 sin 2  tan  ) 4 0
2. A pendulum bob of mass 80 mg and carrying a charge of 2X10-8 C is at rest at a certain angle with
the vertical in a uniform horizontal electric field of 20000 V/m. Find the tension in the thread of the
pendulum and the angle, it makes with the vertical. (Ans: 8.8 X 10-4 N)
3. Two identical balls, each of mass 0.1 x 10-3 kg carry identical charges and are
separated by two non-conducting threads of equal length. At equilibrium, they
position themselves as shown in figure. Calculate the charge on either ball.
(Ans: 1.0X10-7 C)
4. Calculate the electric force between a point

charge and a uniformly charged thin rod as
shown in figure.
5. Calculate the electric force between a point charge and a uniformly

charged thin rod as shown in figure.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 13

Electric Field:
Electric field:
The region around a charge in which any other charge experiences electrostatic force of attraction or
repulsion, is called electric field of that charge. It is a vector Field.
Electric Field Intensity:

Electric field intensity at any point in electric field is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive
F
charge at that point. E  q
0
 Electric field intensity is a vector quantity having the direction same as that of force at that point
on positive test charge. Its S.I. unit is NC-1 or Volt/meter
 If the test charge is not small, then the electric field may be affected by the test charge and hence
we modify the above equation as follows:
F
E  Lim
q 0
q0
0
Physical Significance of Electric Field
Electric field determines the electrical environment of a system of charges. The electric field concept is
useful to describe how electromagnetic fields transport energy.
Example: Electric field acting on a charge determine the trajectories of electrons in C.R.T. (TV tube), in
an accelerator in cancer radiotherapy and behavior of charged particles in semiconductor devices.
Electric field intensity due to a point charge:

Let we have to find the electric field intensity at a point P in the electric field of point charge q.
If r is the distance between the charge and the point than force experienced by a test charge q 0 at this
point is,
1 qq0 F 1 q
F rˆ   rˆ
4 0 r 2
q0 4 0 r2
1 q
Then electric field intensity, E rˆ
4 0 r 2
 The direction of electric field E is radially outward for positive charge (Q

> 0) and is radially inward for negative charge (Q < 0).
 There is no component of electric field parallel to the surface of the conductor i.e. the electric field
diverges and converge perpendicular to the surface of the positive and negatively charged object
respectively.
 Electric field intensity due to a point charge depends only on the amount of the source charge and
is independent of the amount of test charge.
 Force acting on a charge in an electric field does not depend upon the mass of the
source charge.
 Graph between electric field intensity due to a point charge and (1/r 2) is obtained
as:
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 14

Electric field due to a system of charges (Superposition principal applied to the electric field):
Electric field intensity due to a system of charges at any point is equal to the vector sum of electric fields
due to each charge of the system.
i.e. For a system of n charges, the electric field at any point

n n
1 qi
E   Ei  E1  E2  E3  ..........................  En   rˆi
i 1 4 0 i 1 ri 2
Exercise-04 Electric field intensity

1. Name the physical quantity whose SI unit is N/C. (Ans; Electric field intensity)
2. Name the physical quantity whose SI unit is V/m. (Ans; Electric field intensity)
3. What is the significance of electric field intensity?
4. What is the force acting on a charge q placed in an electric field? (Ans: F = qE)
5. In defining electric field intensity due to a point charge, the test charge has to be vanishingly small.
Explain why? (Ans: Large value of test charge may disturb the distribution of source charge)
6. Draw a plot between electric field intensity due to a point charge and (1/r2).
7. Three small spheres each having a charge +q is placed on the circumference of a circle such that
they form an equilateral triangle. Find intensity of electric field at the centre of the circle.
8. Two-point charges of unknown magnitude and sign are at distance d apart. The electric field is zero
at a point not between the charges but on the line joining them. What can you conclude about the
charges?
Ans: Charges are of opposite sign of different magnitudes. Zero electric field is closer to small
charge.
1. Define electric field intensity. Is the electric field intensity is a vector quantity or vector quantity?
Write its S.I. units. Find the electric field intensity due to a point charge at its near point. State the
superposition principle applied to electric field intensity due to a system of charges?
(Ans: (a) 5.4 X 106 NC-1, (b) 8.1 X10-3 N)
2. What do you mean by electric Field? The electric field E due to a point charge at any point near it
F
is defined as E  Lim , where q is test charge and F is the force acting on it. What is physical
q 0 q
significance of Lim in this expression?
q 0
3. A spherical conducting shell of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 has a charge Q. A charge ‘q’ is
placed at the centre of the shell.
a. What is the surface charge density on the (a) inner surface, (b) outer surface of the shell?
b. Write the expression for the electric field at a point x > r2 from the centre of the shell.
 q Qq 1 Qq 
(a)  , (b) 
 4 r1 4 r2
2 2
4 0 x 2 
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 15

Numerical and reasoning questions

1. Two-point charges q A  3C & qB  3C are located 20 cm apart in vacuum. What is the electric
field at the midpoint O of the line AB joining the two charges? If a negative test charge of magnitude
1.5  10 9 C is placed at this point, what is the force experienced by the test charge?
2. Two-point charges 2  C and  2  C are located 10 cm apart in air (a) Calculate the electric field
at the midpoint p of the line RS joining the two charges. (b) If a negative charge of 1.6 X 10 -9 C is
placed at that point, find the force experienced by this charge.
(Ans: (a) 14.4X106 NC-1 (b) -2.3X10-2 N)
3. Two point charges of 5  1019 C and 20  10 19 C are separated by a distance of 2 m, at which
point on the line joining them, the electric field is zero. Ans : x  2 / 3m from 5  1019 C
4. Two-point charges of 16  C and  9  C are placed 8 cm apart in air. Determine the position of
the point at which the resultant electric field is zero. Ans. 24 cm to the right of 9  C charge
5. Two charges of value 2  C and 50  C are placed 80 cm apart. Calculate the distance of the point
from the smaller charge where the intensity is zero. (Ans: 20 cm)
6. Two points charges q1  0.2 C and q2  0.4 C are 0.1 m apart. Find the electric field at (a)
Midpoint between the charge (b) A point on the line joining q 1 and q2 such that it is 0.05 m away
from q2 and 0.15 m away from q1. Ans : (1)7.20  1011 NC 1 (2)1.52 1012 NC 1
7. Charges of 1.2 108 C and 1.6 108 C are placed at two points A and B respectively at a
distance 5 cm from each other. Compute the electric field at a point C distant 3 cm from A and 4
cm from B. E  1.5 X 105 NC 1 and   tan 1 60
8. Four-point charges -2q, +q, -q, +2q are placed at the corners of a square of side 2 cm. find the
magnitude and direction of the electric field at the centre of the square, if q = 0.02 NC-1.
Ans: 1.27  1011 NC 1   45
9. ABCD is a square of side 5 m charges as +50 C, -50 C and +50 C are placed at A, C and D
respectively. Find the resultant electric field at B. Ans :2.7  1010 NC 1
10. Two points charge of 108 C and 108 C are placed at 0.1
m apart as shown in figure. Find electric field at points. (1)
A (2) B (3) C
Ans. (1)7.2  104 NC 1 (2)3.2  104 NC 1 (3)9.0  103 NC 1
11. Find the charge at point O if the electric field at A is zero.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 16

Electric Field due to a long thin wire of uniform linear charge density  (without using Gauss law):
Consider an infinitely long line charge having linear charge density. We will calculate the electric field
at point P at a distance y from the line.
Let dx be the small element of line charge on small element
dq   dx
Electric field at point P due to small element is
1 dq 1  dx
dE   .......(1)
4 0 r 2
4 0 y 2  x 2
The field has two components
dEx  dE sin and dEy  dE cos
dEx acts along negative x direction. Every charge element on the right has a corresponding charge
element on the left. X component of two such charge element will be equal and opposite and hence
cancel out.
The resultant electric field is only due to the contribution from the y- component and is given by
 
1  dx
E  E y   dE y   cos dE  2  cos  4 
 0 0 y 2  x2

 dx
E
2 0  cos y
0
2
 x2
Let x  y tan   dx  y sec2  d
  /2 y sec2    /2 sec2  d   /2
2 0 0 y 2 (1  tan 2  ) 2 0 y 0 (1  tan 2  ) 2 0 y 0
E cos   cos   cos  d
      
sin  0
 /2
E   sin  sin 0   E
2 0 y 2 0 y  2  2 0 y 2 0 y
Electric Field due to a circular charged ring of uniform linear charge density  :
Consider a uniformly charged circular ring of radius ‘a’ and centre O. The ring is of negligible thickness
and is placed with its plane perpendicular to plane of paper. The charge +q is distributed uniformly
over the circumference of the ring. Let p be a point at a distance x from the centre of the ring.
Consider a small element AB = dl of the ring and C is the centre of the

element. Charge on the element AB of the ring
q
dq  dl .......(1)
2 a
Electric field intensity at point P due to the element of length dl
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 17

1 dq 1 q dl
dE   .......(2)
4 0 r 2
4 0 2 ar 2
1 q dl
dE  .......(3)
4 0 2 a( x 2  a 2 )
Resolve dE in to its components
(i) dE cos  ( Axial component ) along PX

(ii) dE sin  (Pr ependicular component ) along PY
As the perpendicular components of any two diametrically opposite elements are equal and opposite,
so they cancel out each other in pair. The axial components will add up to produce the resultant field
at point P. Therefore net electric field intensity at point P due to the charge on ring is
2 a 2 a
1 q dl 1 q
E   dE cos   
whole
dE cos   
0
4 0 2 a( x  a )
2 2
cos  
4 0 2 a( x 2  a 2 ) 
0
cos  dl
Ring
x
But from figure, cos   Therefore,
x  a2
2
2 a
1 qx 1 qx
E
4 0 2 a( x 2  a 2 )3/2  0
dl 
4 0 2 a( x 2  a 2 )3/2
(2 a)
1 qx
E .......(4)
4 0 ( x 2  a 2 )3/2
Direction of net field intensity is along the axis of the ring.
 If point P is at large distance from ring x >> a, then from equation (4) we have
1 qx 1 q
E 
4 0 ( x 2 )3/2 4 0 x 2
This is same as the field due to a point charge, indicating that for far off axial points, the charged
ring behaves as a point charge.
 When point P lies at the centre of the ring, then x = 0. In this condition
1 qx
E 0
4 0 ( x  a 2 )3/2
2
dE
 Electric field intensity due to a charged ring will be maximum if 0
dx
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 18

Force on a charge in external electric field
Force on a charge in external electric field:

When a charge is placed in uniform electric field then it experiences an
electrostatic force, which is given as, FqE
Direction of this force on positive charge is along to electric field and is
opposite to the electric field on negative charge.
F qE
The acceleration produced by this force on the charge is, a  
m m
In this condition the motion of the charge particle is explained by equation of motion.
Balancing of a charged body falling under gravity by electric field:

If a positively charged body is falling freely (under gravity), then electric field required to hold the
body in air
Fe  W  0  Fe  W
mg
Fe  W  qE  mg  E 
q
Motion of a charge in perpendicular electric field:

For horizontal motion
x x
vx  t 
t vx
For vertical motion, we have
y  u y t  12 at 2
y   0  t  12   
2
q E x2
qE
m
x
vx  2 mv 2x
..........(1)
 From equation (1), we have y  x2

i.e. Charged particle in uniform perpendicular electric field follows a parabolic path
 Again, from equation (1), we have y  q / m
i.e. the particle having larger charge to mass ratio will be deflected more and vice versa. For
example, in a uniform electric field the deflection of electron is greater than a proton, when they
enter with same horizontal speed in a uniform perpendicular electric field.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 19

Exercise-05 Electric charge in electric field
1. In an electric field an electron is kept freely. If electron is replaced by a proton, what will be the
relationship between the forces experienced by them?
2. A free electron and a free proton are placed in a uniform electric field, which of the two will
experience greater force and greater acceleration?
Ans: same force, acceleration of electron is larger.
3. What is the force on a charged particle placed in uniform electric field? In an electric field an electron
is kept freely. If electron is replaced by a proton, what will be the relationship between the forces
experienced by them?
4. A particle of mass m and charge (-q) enters the region between the two charged plates initially
moving along x = axis with speed vx. The length of plate is L and a uniform electric field E is
maintained between the pates. Show that the vertical deflection of the particle at the far edge of the
plate is qEL2 /(2mvx2 ). Compare this motion which with motion of a projectile in gravitational field.
5. What is the magnitude and direction of electric field required which can just balance the  particle
falling under gravity? (Ans: 1.96 X 10-7 NC-1)
6. Find the acceleration of an electron, when it is placed in a uniform electric field of magnitude
9.1102 N / C. (Ans: 1.6 X 1014 ms-2)
7. What is the magnitude of the electric field intensity that will balance the weight of an electron? (Ans:
5.6 X 10-11 NC-1 directed upwards)
8. A small sphere of mass 1 gm carries a charge of 6  C . The sphere is suspended by a string in an
electric field of 400NC 1 acting downwards. Calculate tension in the string. (12.2 X 10-3 N)
9. How many electrons should be removed from a coin of mass 1.6 g, so that it may just float in an

electric field of intensity109 NC 1 , directed upward? Ans : 9.8  107 
10. An electron falls through a distance of 1.5 cm in a uniform electric field of magnitude 2.0  104 NC 1 .
The direction of field is reversed keeping its
magnitude unchanged and a proton falls through
the same distance compute the time of fall in each
case. Contrast the situation with that of free fall
under gravity’.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 20

Electric dipole:
0
Electric dipole is a system of two equal and opposite charges placed at very small separation 2l ( 10 A)
Example: Hcl, H2O C2H5OH, CH3COOH and water solution of

CuSO4
Electric dipole moment:
The electric dipole moment of a dipole is defined as the product of magnitude of either charge to the
separation between both charges i.e.
P = q x 2l =2ql
 S.I unit of electric dipole moment is coulomb meter.

 Electric dipole moment is a vector quantity having the direction negative to positive of a dipole.
 A single atom does not behave like electric dipole due to being concentric the positive and negative
charges.
Non polar molecules:
In most molecules centre of positive charge and of negative charges lie at the same place, and therefore
they have zero dipole moment. But when these molecules are placed in external electric field, they
exhibit electric dipole moment. These types of molecules are called Non polar molecules. For example,
CO2 and CH4.
Polar molecules:
Some molecules which have permanent electric dipole moment, even in the absence of external electric
field, are called polar molecules. For example, H2O & Hcl
Note:
 Many physical systems from molecules to TV antenna can be described as electric dipoles.
 A water molecule is an example of an electric dipole. Even though the water
molecule as such is neutral, the chemical bonds within the molecule causes
displacement of charges. This displacement of charges creates a dipole with
a negative charge on the oxygen end and a net positive charge on the
hydrogen end. If water molecules were not electric dipoles, water would
have been a poor solvent.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 21

Electric field intensity due to an electric dipole (End on position or axial point):
Let we have to find electric field intensity at an axial
point p of an electric dipole. The point P is at a
distance r from the centre of dipole, as shown in
figure.
From figure, Electric field due to –q at point P
1 q
E1  (Opposite to electric dipole moment p )
4 0 ( r  l )2
Electric field due to +q at p
1 q
E2  (Along electric dipole moment p )
4 0 ( r - l )2
From Here we see that E2  E1 and direction of E2 is oppositeto E1 . Therefore, net Electric field at
point P is,
1 q 1 q 1  (r  l )2  (r  l ) 2 
E1  E2  ( E1 )  E2  E1   
4 0 (r  l) 2 4 0 (r  l) 2 4 0  (r  l ) 2 (r  l ) 2 
q  r 2  l 2  2rl  r 2  l 2  2rl  q  4rl 
E     2 2 2
4 0  (r-l) (r  l )
2 2
 4 0  (r - l ) 
Since l is very small with respect to r. Therefore, by neglecting l2 we have,
q 4rl 1 2(2ql)
E 
4 0 r 3
4 0 r 3
Direction: The direction of electric field at any axial point of electric dipole is along the direction of
electric dipole moment p
Electric field intensity due to an electric dipole: Broad on position (Equatorial point):
Let we have to find electric field intensity at a point P due
to the electric dipole. The point P exists on the bisector of
the dipole at distance r from the midpoint of dipole.
From figure, Electric field at point p due to –q

1 q
E1  (Along PA) ....... (1)
4 0 (r  l 2 )
2
Electric field at point p due to +q
1 q
E2  (Along BP) ....... (2)
4 0 (r  l 2 )
2
Net electric field at point P is,
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 22

  
E1  E1  E 2
From Here we see that
E2  E1 and the angle between E1 & E2 is   2 , . Therefore, net Electric field at point P is,
E E12  E22  2E1 E2 cos 
From figure, eq (1) and eq (2) we have,  =  +  = 2 & E2  E1
Therefore,
E  E12  E12  2 E1 E1 cos 2  2 E12  2 E12 cos 2
E 2 E12 (1  cos 2 )  E1 2(1  2 cos 2   1)

2q 1 p
E 
4 0 (r 2  2 3/ 2
) 4 0 (r  2 )3/ 2
3
Since l is very small therefore by neglecting l2 we have
1 p
E
4 0 r 3
Direction: The direction of electric field intensity at any equatorial point is parallel to the axis of electric
dipole in opposite direction to the electric dipole moment p .
Note:
 Angle between electric field at axial and equatorial point of an electric dipole is 1800.
 Ratio of electric field at an axial point to an equatorial point at same distance apart from centre of
dipole is 2:1.
 Midpoint of dipole and any point at equator of dipole is a point where electric field exist but electric
potential is zero.
 Inside a uniformly charged sphere or a spherical shell, Electric field is zero but electric potential
exist. Value of electric potential at each point inside the shell or conductor is same as that of
potential at surface.
Electric field intensity due to an electric dipole General point:

Let we have to find electric field intensity at a point P due
to a dipole as shown in figure. For this purpose the electric
dipole moment can be resolved in to two components P
cos
& P sin , So that the point P is axial point of P cos and is

equatorial point of P sin.
Electric field at P due to P cos 
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 23

1 2 p cos 
E1  (Along OP) ...... (1)
4 0 r3
Electric field at P due to P sin 
1 p sin 
E2  (Along OA2) ....... (2)
4 0 r3
Electric Field at point P due to –q and +q are perpendicular to each other, therefore net Electric field at
P
  
E  E1  E2
E E12  E22  2 E1 E2 cos 900  E12  E22
2 2
 1 2 p cos    1 p sin   1 p
E      2 cos     sin  
2 2

 4 0  4 0 4 0 r 3
3 3
r  r 
1 p 1 p
E 4 cos 2   sin 2   4 cos 2   1  cos 2 
4 0 r 3 4 0 r 3
1 p
E 3cos 2   1
4 0 r 3
 When point P is on the Axis of the dipole, then
1 p 1 p 1 2p
E 3cos2   1  4
4 0 r 3
4 0 r 3
4 0 r 3
 When point P is on the bisector of the dipole, then
1 p 1 p
E 3cos 2 90  1 
4 0 r 3 4 0 r 3
Torque on electric dipole placed in external uniform electric field:

When an electric dipole is placed in on uniform electric field at an angle, then two equal and opposite
forces begins to act on the charges of the dipole. This force couple tends to do linear the dipole along
electric field.
From the above, it is found that an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field experiences a torque
which aligns the dipole parallel to the direction of the electric field.
The Torque acting on the dipole is the product of
magnitude of either force or the perpendicular
distance between the forces.
τ = either force X Perpendicular distance
τ = (qE) x 2l sin  = (2ql) E sin 
  pE sin 
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 24

In vector from,   p  E
1. If dipole is placed parallel to the electric field i.e. Angle between electric dipole moment and
external electric field is 00 then
  p X E  p E Sin  p E Sin 0  0
In this condition no Torque is acting on the dipole. This orientation corresponds to stable
equilibrium of electric dipole.
2. If the dipole is placed opposite to electric field i.e. Angle between electric dipole moment and
external electric field is 1800, then
  p X E  p E Sin  p E Sin1800  0
In this condition no Torque is acting on the dipole. This orientation corresponds to unstable
equilibrium of electric dipole.
3. If the dipole is placed perpendicular to electric field i.e. Angle between electric dipole moment and
external electric field is 900, then
τ = PE sin 90 = PE
It is the maximum Torque acting on the dipole.
4. In an uniform electric field, a dipole experiences a torque, even though net force becomes zero.
5. Here the pair of perpendicular vectors are  & E and  & p
Work done in rotating electric dipole in uniform electric field:
Let an electric dipole AB, placed in uniform electric field, is rotated by an angle. In this condition each
charge of the dipole is displaced in electric field and
obtains horizontal and vertical displacements against
electrostatic force. In displacing the charges of dipole,
we have to do work against electrostatic force in
horizontal direction only. The work done in vertical
displacement is zero, due to being angle of 900
between force and displacement
Let an electric dipole AB placed in electric field, is

rotated from position AB to A'B', as shown in figure
Work done in rotating the charge +q of the dipole
W1 = F BB1 = F (OB - OB1)
W1 = F (l - l cos )
W1 = qE  l (l - cos ) ............. (1)
Similarly, the work done in rotating the charge -q from A to A'
W2 = qEl (1 - cos  ) ............. (2)
Total work done W = W1 + W2
W = qEl (1- cos  ) + qEl (1- cos  ) = (qEl + qEl) (1 - cos)
W = 2qEl (l - cos ) = pE (1- cos  ) ............. (3)
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 25

Electric dipole placed in non-uniform external electric field:

When an electric dipole is placed in non-uniform electric field then the charges of dipole experience
different forces. These forces are not equal in magnitude and also their direction is opposite to each
other.
 Due to this a net force acts on the electric dipole in a non-uniform electric field.
 Also, in this condition a net torque acts on the dipole which depends on the location of the dipole
in the non-uniform field.
  p E r 
Where r is position vector of the centre of dipole?

 When an electric dipole is placed parallel or antiparallel to non-uniform electric field then net
torque experienced by dipole is zero but the electric dipole experiences a net force.
Electrostatics Exercise-06 Electric dipole

1. What is the total charge of an electric dipole moment?
2. Name the dielectric whose molecules have (i) non-zero, (ii) zero dipole moment.
3. Name the physical quantity whose SI unit is (i) coulomb/volt (ii) Newton/coulomb (iii)
joule/coulomb
4. An electric dipole is formed by 5 C charges at 4 mm distance. Calculate the dipole moment and
give its direction. (ans: 2X10-8 Cm, -ive to +ive of dipole)
5. What is the angle between (a) electric field due to an electric dipole at its axial point and electric
dipole moment, (b) electric field due to an electric dipole at its equatorial point and electric dipole
moment? (ans: 00 and 1800)
6. What is the angle between electric field due to an electric dipole at its axial point and equatorial
point?
7. For a short dipole what is the ratio of electric field intensities at two equidistant points from the
centre of dipole. One along the axial line and another on the equatorial line.
8. At which orientation an electric dipole in external electric field experiences maximum/ minimum
torque?
9. Which orientation of electric dipole corresponds to its stable equilibrium/ unstable equilibrium?
10. Does an electric dipole experience a translator force when placed in a uniform electric field? (No)
11. Does an electric dipole experience a translator force when placed in the non-uniform electric field?
(Ans: yes)
12. What is the work done in rotating the dipole from its stable equilibrium to unstable equilibrium?
13. What is the value of angle between the vectors p and E for which the potential energy of an electric
dipole of moment p kept in external field E has maximum value? (Ans: 1800)
14. Write the magnitude and direction of electric field intensity due to an electric dipole of length 2a at
the midpoint of the line joining the two charges? (Ans: E  1 2q , along dipole moment )
4 0 a 2
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 26

1. Define the term 'electric dipole moment'. Give S.I. unit of electric dipole moment. Is electric dipole
moment a scalar or vector quantity?
2. Find the electric field intensity due to an electric dipole at a point on its axis distance ‘r’ apart from
the centre of the dipole. What is the direction of the field at this point?
3. Find the electric field intensity due to an electric dipole at any point along the equatorial line and.
Also give the direction of electric field intensity. What is the field when r >>a?
4. Obtain the formulae of torque acting on an electric dipole when placed in external uniform electric
field. Indicate the direction along which the torque acts. Also write the condition of maximum and
minimum torque?
5. Obtain the expression of work done in rotating an electric dipole in uniform external field. What is
the work done in rotating the dipole from its stable equilibrium to unstable equilibrium?
6. An electric dipole is held in a uniform electric field. Using suitable diagram, show that it
does not undergo any translatory motion.
7. Show that when an electric dipole does place in a non-uniform electric field experiences a zero
torque but non zero force?
Numerical and conceptual problems:
1. A system has two charges qA  2.5 107 C & qB  2.5 107 C located at points A (0, 0, -15 cm)
and B (0, 0, +15 cm) respectively. What are the total charge and electric dipole moment of the
system? What is its direction? (ans: zero, 75 X10-9 C-m)
2. Three charges +q, -2q and +q are located at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side 2l. What is
the equivalent dipole moment of the arrangement? Ans : 2 3 ql
3. Two dipoles made from charges  q and  Q respectively have equal dipole moments. Give the (a)
ratio between the separation of these two pairs of charges and (b) angle between the dipole axes of
these two dipoles. (Ans: q/Q, and 00)
4. Two charges 10  C are placed 5.0 mm apart. Determine the
electric field at (a) At point P on the axis of the dipole 15 cm
away its centre O on the side of the positive charge and (b) At
point Q, 15 cm away from O on a line passing through O and
normal to the axis of the dipole, as shown in figure?
(Ans: 0.26 X 106 NC-1, 0.13 X 106 NC-1)
5. A point charge placed at any point on the axis of an electric
dipole at some large distance experiences a force F. What will be the force acting on the point charge
when its distance from the dipole is doubled? (Ans: F/8)
6. The following data was obtained for the dependence of the magnitude of electric field, with from a
reference point O, within the charge distribution in the shaded region.
field A B C A` B` C`
Magnitude E E/8 E/27 E/2 E/16 E/54

of electric
field
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 27

Identify the charge distribution and justify your answer.
If the potential due to this charge distribution has a value V at the point A, what is its value at
the point A?
6
7. An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 10 C m is aligned at 300 with the direction of a uniform
1
electric field of magnitude 5 10 NC . Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole.
4
8. An electric dipole of length 4 cm, when placed with its axis making an angle of 60° with a uniform
electric field experiences a torque of 4√ 3 Nm. Calculate the (i) magnitude of the electric field (ii)
potential energy of the dipole, if the dipole has charges of ± 8 nC.
9. An electric dipole of length 10 cm having charges ± 6 x 10-3 C, placed at 30° with respect to a uniform
electric field, experiences a torque of magnitude 6√3 Nm. Calculate, (a) The magnitude of the
electric field. (b) The potential energy of the dipole.
10. An electric dipole of length 4 cm, when placed with its axis making an angle of 30 0 with a uniform
electric field experiences a torque of 4 N m. calculate the (i) magnitude of the electric field, (ii)
potential energy of the dipole, if the dipole has charges of 10 nC.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 28

Electric lines of force:
Electric lines of force are the imaginary smooth curves in the electric field of any charge at which an
isolated test charge moves or tends to move.
Drawing of Electric lines of force due to some charges:
Q> 0 (b) Q< 0
Q1Q2 > 0 (d) Q1>0, Q2< 0
Properties of electric lines of force:
1. There is no component of electric field parallel to the surface of the charged conductor i.e. the
electric lines of forces are emitted or converges perpendicular to the surface of the charged object.
2. The electric lines of force are continuous curves. They originate on positive charge and
terminate on negative charge & if there is a single charge, they may start or end at infinity.
3. The tangent at any point of electric line of force gives the direction of electric field at that point and
also the direction of electric force at that point.
4. Two electric lines of force can never intersect to each other because in this condition there will be
two directions of electric field at intersection point which is not possible.
5. The electric lines of force cannot pass through a conductor. i.e. they do not form a closed loop.
6. The closeness of electric lines of force represents the strong electric field and vice versa.
7. The electric lines of force contract longitudinally on account of attraction between unlike charges.
8. They are imaginary but the electric field they represent is real.
9. They cut equipotential surfaces at right angles.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 29

Exercise-07 Electric lines of force
1. What are electric lines of force? Write any four properties of electric lines of force. Explain why two
electric lines of force can never intersect each other?
2. Why electric lines of force are continuous curves?
3. Explain why two electric lines of force never intersect to each other?
4. Sketch electric lines of force due to the charges
(a) Q > 0, (b) Q < 0 (c) Q1Q2 > 0 (d) Q1Q2 < 0 (e) Q1+Q2 = 0
5. Draw electric lines of force due to an electric dipole.
6. Why do the electric lines of force do not form closed loops?
7. Figure shows a point charge +Q, located at a distance R/2 from the centre of a
spherical metal shell. Draw the electric field lines for the given system.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 30

Electric Flux and Gauss theorem
Area Vector:
A vector having magnitude equal to a given area (surface) and perpendicular
to the given surface is called area vector of that surface.
dA  dA n

Where n̂ is unit vector in the direction of d A
Solid Angle:
The angle formed by the surface area of a sphere at the centre of the sphere is called solid Angle.
Solid angle subtended by small surface Area dA
dA
d  (Unit: Staradian)
r2
The solid angle subtended by whole sphere
dA 1 1
 2
 2  dA  2 (4 r 2 )  4 Staradian
r r r
if the small surface area is inclined Then,
dA cos  dA cos 
d  2
    4 Staradian
r r2
Electric flux:
Electric flux is defined as the number of electric lines of force passing through any area passing
normally through that area.
If dA is Area Vector and E is electric field intensity at a

point of surface area dA then electric flux passing through
dA is
dE  E.dA  E dA cos
 
Where  is angle between area vector dA and electric field (E )

Note:
1. Electric flux is a scalar quantity; its S.I unit is Nm-2 C-1.

2. If electric lines of force emerge from a surface then the flux is positive and vice versa.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 31

Exercise-08 Electric flux
1. Define electric flux. Write its SI units and dimensions. Is it a scalar quantity or vector?
2. What is the net flux of the uniform electric field through a cube of side 20 cm oriented so that its
faces are parallel to the coordinate planes?
3. The electric field in a certain region of space is E  5iˆ  4 ˆj  4kˆ N/C. Calculate the electric flux due
to this field over an area of ( A  2iˆ  ˆj ) 105 m2. (Ans: 6X 103 NC-1 m2)
4. Consider a uniform electric field E  3 103 iˆ N / C .
a. What is the flux of this field through a square of 10 cm on a side whose plane is parallel to the yz
plane?
b. What is the flux through the same square if the normal to its place makes a 600 angle with the x-
axis?
5. The electric field components in figure are EX   x1/2 , E y  Ez  0, in
which   800 N / C m . calculate (a) the flux through cube, and (b) the
1/ 2
charge within the cube. Assume that a=0.1 m.

Ans: (a) 1.05 Nm2 C-1 (b) 9.27 X 10-12 C
6. Electric field in the given figure is directed along +X direction and given by
Ex  5 Ax  2 B, where E is in N C 1 and x is in meter, A and B are constant
with dimensions taking A=10 N C-1 m-1 and B=5N C-1, calculate(a)The electric
flux through the cube.(b) Net charge enclosed within the cube.
Ans: (a) 5 X 10-2 Nm2 C-1 (b) 4.425 X 10-13 C
7. A cube of side 16 cm is lying with its base along +x axis.

Electric field along +x axis is given by 500 x , whereas the
components of field along z Axis and Y axis are zero. What is
the flux through the cube and also the charge in the cube if
left face of the cube is at (16,0,0) cm.
( Ans :  2.12 Nm2C 1 , q 1.88 1011 C )
8. An electric field is uniform, and in the positive x direction for positive x, and uniform with the same
magnitude but in the negative x, and negative x. it is given that E  200 iˆ N / C for x>0 and
E  200 iˆ N / C for x  0. a right circular cylinder of length 20 cm and radius 5 cm has its centre
at the origin and its axis along the x-axis so that one face is at x=+10 cm and the other is at x=-10 cm
(a) what is the net outward flux through each flat face? (b) What is the flux through the side of the
cylinder? (c) What is the net outward flux through the cylinder? (d) What is the net charge inside
the cylinder?
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 32

Gauss Theorem:
Gauss theorem:
According to this theorem, the total electric flux passing through any closed surface is 1/  0  times to
the charge enclosed by that surface. i.e. if q is charge enclosed by any surface, then the flux through
that surface is,
q
E   E.dS   0
Note:
 Note that the above theorem holds good for any shape of the closed surface and for any general
charge distribution. Since the theorem is based on the inverse square law, it is applicable to any
field obeying inverse square law.
 The net flux passing through any closed surface does not depend on shape or
size of the surface. (2) The ratio of flux through S1 to flux through S2
1 q  0 1
 x  1 : 2  1:1
2  0 q 1
 If a wire of length l having linear charge density  is enclosed in a Gaussian surface, then flux
l
through that surface is E 
0
q
 If charge q is enclosed by the cube then, Flux through whole cube =
0
q
& Flux through each side =
6 0
 If the charge is at one corner of the cube then,

q
Flux through any side is,  E 
240
q
& Flux through whole cube is, E 
8 0
 Electric flux through a Gaussian surface enclosing an electric dipole is zero.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 33

Proof of Gauss Theorem:

Let +q charge is enclosed by any surface and dA is area element at this
surface as shown in figure. Then the flux passing through area dA
dE  E.dA  EdA cos
1 q
dE  dA cos  ........... (1)
4 0 r 2
And flux passing through whole surface
1 q q dA cos 1 dA cos
E   dA cos  
4 0  r 2

4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2
q q
E  (4 ) 
4 0 0
This is the statement of Gauss theorem
 If coulomb’s law depends on 1/rn instead of 1/r2, then statement of gauss theorem will be changed.
To find electric field intensity due to a point charge:

Let we have to find the electric fire intensity at a point P due to a point charge +q. For this we consider
a Gaussian surface passing through the point P which is a sphere of radius 'r'. Now let we consider a
small surface area dA at point P at this Gaussian surface, then
Flux passing through dA
dE  E.dA  E dA cos
But At Po int P,  00 , Therefore

dE  E dA cos0  E dA ...........(1)
The total flux passing through whole Gaussian surface
E   EdA  E  dA  E (4 r 2 ) ...............(2)
But according to Gauss Theorem,
q
E  .......... .......( 3)
0
q
From (2) and (3), we have, E (4 r 2 ) 
0
q 1 q
E  NC-1 …........ (4)
4 r 0 4 0 r 2
2
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 34

 To find coulomb’s law from Gauss law:

We know that the electrostatic force experienced by a charge q0 placed in electric field E is,
 1 q  1 qq0
F  q0 E  q0  2 

 4 0 r  4 0 r 2
1 qq0
F
4 0 r 2
This is coulomb’s Law
 To find electrostatic potential at point P:

Due to point charge,
 dV  1 q 
We have, E   dV =  E dr   .dr 
 4 0 r
2
dr 
1 q q 1
By integrating, V    4  0 r 2
.dr  
4 0 r 2
.dr
q  1  1 q
V    
4 0  r  4 0  r 
This is the electrostatic potential at point P due to charge +q.
To find Electric field Intensity due to a charged spherical shell:

Let we have to find the electric field intensity at any point P due to an uniformly charged spherical
shell of charge density  . Let the point P is distance 'r' apart from the centre of the shell.
For this we consider a Gaussian surface (sphere) passing

through point P and we consider a small area element dA
on this Gaussian surface at point P.T hen the flux passing
through this area element
dE  E.dA  E dA cos   E dA
The total flux passing through whole Gaussian surface,
E   E dA  E  dA  E (4 r 2 ) ………….. (1)
Acc to Gauss theorem
q
E  ..………… (2)
0
By comparing eq. (1) and (2), we have,
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 35

q q 1 q
E (4 r 2 )  E 
0 4 r 0 4 0 r 2
2 NC-1 ................... (4)
Equation (4) is the formula of electric field intensity at any nearer point of a charged spherical shell,
which is same as that of a point charge placed at centre of the shell. Therefore, the charge of spherical
shell can be assumed as a point charge placed at the centre of the shell.
 At the surface of charged shell: At the surface of spherical shell, Then, r =R and therefore,
1 q
E
4 0 R 2
 Inside the spherical shell: If the point P is inside the spherical shell. In this condition, there is no
charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface and hence no electric flux passes through the Gaussian
surface i.e.
dE  0  E.dA  0  E.dA  0
Since dA  0 therefore, E  0
i.e inside the charged spherical shell the electric field is zero.
 Electric potential due to uniformly charged spherical shell:

dV  1 q
E  dV   E.dr    2 
dr
r  4 0 r 
By integrating, we have
q 1 q 1 q  1 1 q
V  
4 0 r 2
dr   
4 0 r 2
dr  
4 0  r   4 r Volt
0
q 1 q 1 q  1 1 q
V  
4 0 r 2
dr   
4 0 r 2
dr  
4 0  r   4 r Volt
0
Inside the spherical shell, electric field is zero but electric potential is not zero. Electric potential
inside the shell is uniform everywhere and is equal to electric potential at the surface of the shell.
At the midpoint of the axis of a dipole electric field intensity exist but the value of Electric potential
is zero.
 Graphical variation of electric field and electric potential:

The variation of electric field with distance is due to a spherical charged shell is shown in the
diagrams below.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 36

Electric field intensity due to a charge infinite conductor:

Let we have to calculate the electric field intensity due to a uniformly shared straight conductor of
infinite length and charge density ,at any of its nearer point P. For this, we consider a small part of
this wire of length l and a Gaussian surface passing through the point P. This Gaussian surface is a
cylinder of length 'l'. Now let we consider the small surface elements at the Gaussian cylinder as shown
in figure.
Flux passing through small portion dA at any surface point P is,
d1  E.dA  E dA cos   E dA cos 0  E dA
Flux passing through whole surface of Gaussian surface
1   EdA  E  dA  E (2 rl )
Flux passing through small surface area at either cross-section

of the cylinder,
d2  E ' .dA  E 'dA cos   E dA cos 900  0  2  0
Similarly, the flux through other cross-section,
d3  E ' .dA  E 'dA cos   E dA cos 900  0  3  0
Then total flux through whole Gaussian cylinder
  1  2  3  E (2 rl )  0  0
  E (2 rl ) ....................(1)
According to Gauss theorem, total flux through whole Gauss theorem,
q
E  ............................(2)
0
By comparing (1) and (2), we have
q 1 q 1 
E (2 rl )   E 
0 2 0 r l 2 0 r
q
Where   is the linear charge density of the wire.
l
The direction of electric field points radially outwards. The following graph shows the variation of 'E'
verses 'r'.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 37

Electric field intensity due to a uniformly charged plane sheet of infinite extension:
Let we have a uniformly charged plane sheet of charge density  and of infinite extension, and let we
have to find the electric field intensity at any of its nearer point P, distance r apart from the sheet. For
this we consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface and we consider the small surface elements at this
Gaussian cylinder as shown in the figure,
Flux passing through either plane end of the Gaussian

cylinder,
1   E.dA   E dA cos  E  dA cos00  E A
Similarly, the flux passing through other plane of the

Gaussian cylinder is,
2   E.dA   E dA cos   E  dA cos 00  E A
Flux passing through small portion at surface of the Gaussian cylinder is,
d3  E '.dA
Then flux through total surface
3   E ' .dA   E ' dA cos   E '  dA cos 900  0
Total flux through whole Gaussian cylinder
  1  2  3  EA  EA  0  2EA ............. 1
According to Gauss theorem, total flux through whole Gaussian cylinder,
q
E  ............... (2)
0
By comparing (1) and (2), we have
1 q 
E 
2 0 A 2 0
Since is independent of 'r', the graph between 'E' verses 'r' would be
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 38

 Electric field due to two uniformly similar charged (negatively) plane sheets:
When both plates are negatively charged:
  
EA  E1  E2   
2 0 2 0  0
   
EB  E3  E4    0
2 0  2 0

      
EC  E5  E6      
 2 0   2 0  0
 Electric field due to two uniformly similar charged (positively) plane sheets:
When both plates are positively charged
          
E A  E1  E2       EB  E3  E4    0
 2 0   2 0  0 2 0  2 0 
  
EC  E3  E4   
2 0 2 0  0
 Electric field due to two opposite charged plane sheets:
            
E A  E1  E2     0 EB  E3  E4      
 2 0   2 0   2 0   2 0  0
     
EC  E3  E4     0
 2 0   2 0 
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 39

Exercise Gauss Theorem

1. State Gauss theorem of electrostatics. If Coulomb’s law has dependence of 1/r 3 instead of 1/r2,
would Gauss law still hold?
2. An electric dipole of dipole moment 20 × 1𝑂−6 Cm is enclosed by a closed surface. What is the
net flux coming out of the surface?
A point charge causes an electric flux of 1.0 10 Nm / C to pass through a spherical Gaussian
3 3
3.
surface of 10.0 cm radius centered on the charge. If the radius of the Gaussian surface were
doubled. How much flux would pass through the surface?
4. If a charge q is placed at the centre of a Gaussian cube. Determine the flux through the cube/ any
side of the cube.
5. If a charge q is placed at the corner of a Gaussian cube. Determine the flux through the cube/ side
of the cube.
6. A point charge of 2.0  C is at the centre of cubic Gaussian surface 9.0 cm on edge. What is the
net electric flux through the surface?
7. Draw a variation between flux through a Gaussian surface if the enclosed charge by the surface is
changed.
8. Draw the variation of electric field due to thin uniformly charged plate of infinite extension with
distance.
9. How does the electric flux and electric field enclosing a given charge vary when the area enclosed
by the charge is doubled? (Ans: Flux-constant, Electric field-halved)
10. A balloon of radius 10 cm has inward flux of – 1 X 103 Nm2 C-1. What will be the flux if radius of
the balloon is doubled? (Ans: no effect)
11. Compare the electric flux in a cubical surface of side 10 cm and a spherical surface of radius 10 cm,
when a charge of=5 micro coulomb is enclosed by them. (Ans: 1:1)
12. Two plane sheets of charge densities +𝜎 and −𝜎 are kept in air as
shown in figure. What are the electric field intensities at points A
and B?
1. Using Gauss theorem find electric field intensity due to a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius
R, at a point (a) outside the surface (b) at the surface (c) inside the surface.
Also plot a graph showing the variation of electric field with distance.
2. Using Gauss' theorem, deduce an expression for the electric field intensity at any point due to a thin,
infinitely long wire of charge/length λ C/m. Draw the variation of electric field due to this wire with
distance?
3. Apply Gauss theorem to obtain the expression for the electric field intensity at a point due to an
infinitely large plane sheet having uniform surface charge density. Show that electric field due to
infinite plane sheet of charge does not depend upon distance of observation point from the sheet?
4. Obtain electric field intensities at point A, B and C due to two charged plates
having equal and opposite charge densities as shown. Also draw electric lines
of force due to given arrangement.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 40

Numerical Conceptual problems

1. Charges of magnitudes 2Q and –Q are located at points (a,0,0) and (4a,0,0). Find the ratio of the flux
of electric flux due to these charges through concentric spheres of radii 2a and 8a centered at the
origin. (Ans: 2:1)
2. Two charges of magnitudes -2Q and +Q are located at points (a,0) and (4a, 0) respectively. What is
the electric flux due to these charges through a sphere of radius 3a with its centre at the origin?
(Ans:   2Q /  0 )
3. Two charges of magnitudes -3Q and +2Q are located at points (a,0) and (4a, 0) respectively. What is
the electric flux due to these charges through a sphere of radius 5a with its centre at the origin?
(Ans:   Q /  0 )
4. Careful measurement of the electric field at the surface of a black box indicates that the net outward
flux through the surface of the box is 8.0 10 Nm / C. (a) what is the net charge inside the box?
3 2
(b) if the net outward flux through the surface of the box were zero. Could you conclude that there
were no charges inside the box? Why or why not?
5. A point charge causes an electric flux of 1.0 10 Nm / C to pass through a spherical Gaussian
3 3
surface of 10.0 cm radius centered on the charge. (a) If the radius of the Gaussian surface were
doubled. How much flux would pass through the surface? (b) What is the value of the point charge?
6. An electric flux of – 100 Nm2 C-1 passes through a surface of 5 cm radius centered on the charge,
a. How much electric flux would pass through the surface if its radius is doubled?
b. Find the value of charge causing this flux
(Ans: same, -8.85 X 10-9 C)
7. A uniformly charged conducting sphere of 2.4 m diameter has a surface charge density of
80.0  C / m 2 (a) Find the charge on the sphere. (b) What is the total electric flux leaving the surface
of the sphere?
8. An infinite line charge produces a field of 9  10 N / C at a distance of 2 cm. calculate the linear
4
charge density.
9. A charge of 17.7 x 10-4 C is distributed uniformly over a large sheet of area 200 m2. Calculate the
electric field intensity at a distance 20 cm from it in air.
10. A conducting sphere of radius 10 cm has an unknown charge. If the electric field 20 cm from the
centre of the sphere is 1.5 10 N / C and points radially inward. What is the net charge on the
3
sphere?
11. Two large thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other. On their inner faces, the plates have
22
surface charge densities of opposite signs and of magnitude 17.0 10 C / m . what is E: (a) in the
2
outer region of the first plate, (b) in the outer region of the second plate and (c) between the plates?
12. A uniformly charged rod with linear charge density  of length L is inserted in to a hollow cubical
structure of side L with constant velocity and moves out from the
opposite face. Draw the graph between flux and time. Also draw the
graph if side of cube is greater than the length of rod.
13. A small metal sphere carrying charge +Q is located at the centre of a
spherical cavity in a large uncharged metal sphere as shown in figure
(C). Use Gauss’s theorem to find electric field at point P1 and P2 .
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 41

14. The flux of the electrostatic field, through the closed spherical surface 𝑆 ′ (in figure A) is found to
be four times that through the closed spherical surface S. Find the
magnitude of the charge Q. Given: 𝑞1 = 1 𝜇𝐶, 𝑞2 = −2 𝜇𝐶 and 𝑞3 =
9.854 𝜇𝐶
15. A hollow charged conductor has a tiny hole cut into its surface. Show
that the electric field in the hole is ( / 2 0 ) n̂ , where n̂ the unit vector
in the outward normal direction is, and  is the surface charge density
near the hole.
PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 42

Electric Charges and Field

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Electric Charges and Field

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ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Electrification of objects (Charging of objects):

 There are two types of charges positive and negative.

Charging of objects by friction:

Negatively Silk cloth Amber, Rubber,

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 1

Electron theory of electrification (Charging):

Common examples of charging by friction:

 At microscopic level we cannot ignore quantization of charge. However at macroscopic level,

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 2

c. Radioactive Decay of uranium nucleus 92U238  90Th234 + 2He4

Earthing or Grounding of Charge:

Charging of objects by Induction

Process of charging by induction:

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 3

Induced charge is of two types:

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 4

Continuous distribution of charges:

The charge per unit length of an object is called Linear

Then Total Charge on the object is,

If the body has uniform charge density then, q = σ dA 

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 5

Exercise-01 Basic properties of charge

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 6

Where K is dielectric constant of the intervening medium

2. Definition of dielectric constant (Relative permittivity):

Air or vacuum: K=1 Paper: K=3.7 Water: K = 80

Wax: K= 2.0 Mica: K = 7 to 10 Metal; K = infinity

3. Definition of dielectric constant in terms of electrostatic force:

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 7

4. Nature of columbic forces:

5. Graph between F and 1/r2:

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 8

Vector Form of Coulomb's Law:

And the force on charge (2) due to charge (1)

2. If q1 and q2 are of opposite sign (q1 q2 < 0):

And the force on charge (2) due to charge (1)

To show that Coulomb's law agrees with Newton's third law:

Hence, we can say Coulomb's law obeys Newton's 3rd Law.

Superposition Principle applied to Columbic force:

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 9

Exercise-02 Coulomb’s Law

Very short answer type questions

8. Explain why electrostatic force between two charges is central force?

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 10

Numerical and reasoning questions

 Ans : F12  (5  10 )(2i  2 j  k 12 

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 11

Exercise-03 Superposition principle applied to Coulomb’s Law

5. Consider the charge q, q and –q placed at the vertices of an equilateral

9. Three point charges of 2  C ,  3 C and  3 C are kept at the vertices

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 12

Exercise 04: Additional exercise (coulomb’s law)

4. Calculate the electric force between a point

5. Calculate the electric force between a point charge and a uniformly

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 13

Electric Field Intensity:

Physical Significance of Electric Field

Electric field intensity due to a point charge:

 The direction of electric field E is radially outward for positive charge (Q

PRAMOD SOM 9358399600 14

i.e. For a system of n charges, the electric field at any point

Exercise-04 Electric field intensity

Very short answer type questions