Gauss' Law, Integral Form

The area integral of the

electric field over any
closed surface is equal to
the net charge enclosed in
the surface divided by the
permitivity of space. Gauss'
law is a form of one of
Maxwell’s equations, the
four fundamental equations
for electricity and
magnetism.
Summer July 2004 1
 Applications of Gauss’s Law

• Find electric field of an infinite long uniformly charged wire of

negligible radius.

• Find electric field of a large thin flat plane or sheet of charge

• Find electric field around two parallel flat planes

• Find E inside and outside of a long solid cylinder of charge

density  and radius r.

• Find E for a thin cylindrical shell of surface charge density 

• Find E inside and outside a solid charged sphere of charge

density 
Summer July 2004 2
 ELECTIC POTENTIAL
• Brief Review of Some Physics I
Concepts

Definition
A force is conservative if & only if
the work done by that force on an object moving from one
point to another depends ONLY on the initial & final
positions of the object, & is independent of the particular path
taken.
Example: Gravity
Summer July 2004 3
 Conservative Force: Another definition:
A force is conservative if the net work done by the force
on an object moving around any closed path is zero.
 Potential Energy:
Can only be defined for
Conservative
Forces!

Another Physics I Result

The change in the Potential Energy is defined to be
the negative of the work done by the conservative force.
End of Brief Review!!
 Chapter 22 : Electric potential

• What is electric potential?

• How does it relate to

potential energy?

• How does it relate to

electric field?

• Some simple applications

 Electric potential

• What does it mean

when it says “1.5 Volts”
on the battery?

• The electric potential

difference between the
ends is 1.5 Volts
Electric potential

1.5 V
230 V

100,000 V

So what is a volt?
 Electric potential
• The electric potential difference ∆𝑉 in volts
between two points is the work in Joules needed to
move 1 C of charge between those points

𝑊 = 𝑞 × ∆𝑉
W = work done [in J]
q = charge [in C]
∆V = potential difference [in V]

• ∆𝑉 is measured in volts [V] : 1 V = 1 J/C

 Electric potential
• The electric potential difference ∆𝑉 in volts
between two points is the work in Joules needed to
move 1 C of charge between those points

𝑊 = 𝑞 × ∆𝑉

The 1.5 V battery does

1.5 J of work for every
1 C of charge flowing
round the circuit
 Potential Energy
• A mass can have a Potential Energy due to
its environment.
Potential Energy (U) 
The energy associated with the position or
configuration of a mass.
Examples of systems with Potential Energy:
• A wound-up spring
• A stretched elastic band
• An object at some height above the ground
 Electrostatic Potential Energy,
Potential Difference
The Electrostatic Force is
Conservative
 So an Electrostatic Potential
Energy can be defined.
As in Physics I, in this case, the
change in the electric potential
energy is negative of work done
by electric force:

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 Electric Potential Energy
Electrostatic force
Gravitational force

Note: Electric energy is one type of energy.

 Reference Point of Electric Potential Energy

The reference point can be anywhere. For convenience,

we usually set charged particles to be infinitely
separated from one another to be zero potential energy

The potential energy U of the system at any point f is

where W∞ is the work done by the electric field on a charged

particle as that particle moves in from infinity to point f.
 Electric Potential
The electric potential V at a given point is the
electric potential energy U of a small test
charge q0 situated at that point divided by the
charge itself:

If we set at infinity as our reference

potential energy,

SI Unit of Electric Potential: joule/coulomb=volt (V)

Note:
•Both the electric potential energy U and the electric
potential V are scalars.
•The electric potential energy U and the electric potential V
are not the same. The electric potential energy is associated
with a test charge, while electric potential is the property of
the electric field and does not depend on the test charge.
 The Electric Potential V is defined
as potential energy per unit charge:

The SI Unit of Electric Potential is

The Volt (V). 1 V = 1 J/C.
Only changes in potential can be measured,
so we can arbitrarily choose the point where V = 0.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Notes Continue
• Electric field always points from
higher electric potential to lower
electric potential.

• A positive charge accelerates from a

region of higher electric potential
energy (or higher potential) toward a
region of lower electric potential
energy (or lower potential).

• A negative charge accelerates from a

region of lower potential toward a
region of higher potential.
 Conceptual Example: A negative charge.
Suppose a negative charge, such as an electron, is placed near
the negative plate at point b, as shown here. If the electron is
free to move, will its electric potential energy increase or
decrease? How will the electric potential change?

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Electrical Sources such
as batteries and
generators supply a
constant potential
difference. Here are some
typical potential
differences, both natural
and manufactured:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Energy Change in the Electric Field
The direction of the electric field is the direction of
the electric force, exerted on a positive charge.
Thus, a positive charge gains electrical potential
energy when it is moved in a direction opposite the
electric field.
Similarly, a negative charge moving in a direction
opposite to the electric field loses electrical
potential energy.
Positive charges move from a point of higher
potential to a point of lower potential.
Electric Potential of a Point Charge
The point of zero electric potential is defined to be
at an infinite distance from the charge.
The potential (or work per unit charge
q
to move a test charge from infinity to
V = ke
a distance r from a positive charge q)
r
increases the closer the positive test
charge is moved to q.
The potential of a point charge decreases with
distance as 1/r, while the electric field decreases as
1/r2.
Electric Potential
What is the potential 2
meters away from a one
nano-coulomb (109 C)
charge?

V = V(r) = keq/r
ke = 9 x 109 (SI units)
q = 1 x 109 C
r=2m
V = 9 x 109 (1 x 109) / 2
= 4.5 V
 Work Due to Potential Difference
How much work
would be done by
the electric field if Q
= 20 C were
moved from A to B?

W = QDV, Q = 20 C
DV = 8V  4.5 V = 3.5 V
W = (20 C) (3.5 V)=  70 J
 Potential Due to 2 Charges
What is the
potential at
Point P?

V = keq/r for each charge, add the potentials:

V = (9 x 109)(4 x 109)/12 = 4 V
V = (9 x 109)(6 x 109)/27 = 2 V
Total Potential: 6 V
Potentials and Charged Conductors
W = q (VB – VA)
If VB – VA = 0, no work is required to move a charge
between points A and B.
• When a conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium,
a net charge resides entirely on its surface.
• The electric field just outside the conductor is
perpendicular to the surface.
• The electric field inside the conductor is zero.
 All points on the surface of a charged conductor
in electrostatic equilibrium are at the same potential.
 Electric potential
• e.g. moving a charge through an electric field…
𝐹 𝐹 = −𝑞𝐸
𝑞
𝐸 (minus sign because the
∆𝑥 force is opposite to E)

Work = Force x Distance 𝑊 = 𝐹 ∆𝑥 = −𝑞𝐸 ∆𝑥

• Potential difference ∆𝑉 is work needed to move

1C of charge: 𝑊 = 𝑞 ∆𝑉
∆𝑉
• Equate: 𝑞 ∆𝑉 = −𝑞𝐸 ∆𝑥 𝐸=−
∆𝑥
 Electric potential
∆𝑉
• Electric field is the gradient of potential 𝐸 = −
∆𝑥
High V Low V
𝐸 𝑉

𝑥
• Positive charges feel a force
from high to low potential

• Negative charges feel a force

𝑥 from low to high potential
 Electric potential
∆𝑉
• Electric field is the gradient of potential 𝐸 = −
∆𝑥
High V Low V
𝐸 𝑉

𝑥
• Positive charges feel a force
from high to low potential

• Negative charges feel a force

𝑥 from low to high potential
 Electric potential
∆𝑉
• Electric field is the gradient of potential 𝐸 = −
∆𝑥
High V Low V • The dashed lines are called
𝐸 equipotentials (lines of
constant V)

• Electric field lines are

perpendicular to equipotentials

• It takes no work to move a

charge along an equipotential
(work done = 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹. Ԧ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑞𝐸. 𝑑𝑥 = 0)
 Electric potential
• Summary for two plates at potential difference V

𝐸 • Electric field is the potential

gradient

𝑉
𝐸=
𝑑
• Work W to move charge q
from –ve to +ve plate

𝑊=𝑞𝑉
𝑑
 Link to potential energy
• The electric potential difference ∆𝑉 between two
points is the work needed to move 1 C of charge
between those points

𝑊 = 𝑞 × ∆𝑉

• This work is also equal to the potential energy

difference ∆𝑈 between those points

∆𝑈 = 𝑞 × ∆𝑉

• Potential V = potential energy per unit charge U/q