ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

ELECTRIC FIELD
An electric field is defined as a region where electric force acts on a charged particle. This
force is both attractive and repulsive.
Electric fields are used in machines that operate on the principle of accelerating charged
particles such as electrons.
These machines include:
(i) Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
(ii) Cathode ray tube (CRT)
(iii) Particle accelerators
(iv) Spectrometers
(v) X – ray machines
The diagram below shows accelerated electrons in a uniform electric field that produces X
– rays. In the X –ray machine, high-speed electrons are crashed into a metal target in order
to produce the X – rays.
99% of kinetic energy of the electron will change to heat; hence, tungsten is used since it
has a high melting point. It is surrounded by copper which conducts the heat away.
So how do we cause electrons to move at high speed?

A charged particle will feel a force when it is in an electric field. To visualize the forces
caused by the field, we draw electric field lines.

1
Conventional electric field direction is positive to negative. The accelerated electrons are
moving from negative to positive hence their displacement, velocity and acceleration are
negative.
In a uniform field, the force per unit charge is constant and the field lines are parallel to
one another and have equal spacing (separation). The closer the lines are, the stronger the
field is.
The force per unit charge experienced in a field is referred to as electric field strength, E.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑭
𝑬= (𝑁𝐶 −1 )
𝑸

𝐹 = 𝐸𝑄

If the distance between the two plates is 𝑑, the electric field strength can also be measured
in terms of voltage per unit length on condition it is a uniform field.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐸= 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑽
𝑬= (𝑉𝑚−1 )
𝒅

Example 1
Show that 𝑽𝒎−𝟏 = 𝑵𝑪−𝟏 in base units.
Answer
𝐽
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −2 𝐶 −1
𝑉𝑚−1 = = 𝐶
= = 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2 𝐶 −1 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝐴−1 𝑠 −3
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚 𝑚

𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑁𝐶 −1 = = = 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝐴−1 𝑠 −3
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝐴𝑠

Hence, 𝑉𝑚−1 = 𝑁𝐶 −1

2
In an X – ray or any charged particle accelerating tube, the plates are in a vacuum to
prevent the charged particles from colliding with air molecules hence, the electric field
force becomes resultant force.
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐸𝑄
𝑚𝑎 = 𝐸𝑄
𝐸𝑄
𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑉
But since 𝐸 = 𝑑

𝑽𝑸
𝒂=
𝒅𝒎

Example 2

4 cm
0V 450 kV

Electron

50 cm

If the electron above starts from rest, calculate its velocity after 4 cm.
Answer
𝑉𝑄 450 000 𝑉 𝑥 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝐶
𝑎= = = 1.58 𝑥 1017 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑑𝑚 0.5𝑚 𝑥 9.11 𝑥 10−31 𝑘𝑔

−4
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = −1.58 𝑥 1017 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = = −0.04 𝑚
100

𝑣 = √0 + 2(−1.58 𝑥 1017 )(−0.04) = 1.12 𝑥 108 𝑚𝑠 −1

3
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
An electron has electric potential energy, 𝑬𝒑 due to its location within the electric field.

The kinetic energy gained by the electron, comes from a transfer of electric potential
energy.
Every location within a field gives a charged particle a certain electric potential energy per
𝐸𝑝
unit charge. This is called electric potential, 𝑉 = 𝑄

The difference between that and a new location that the electron might move to is called
potential difference, which the electron moves through.
Previously, we defined potential difference for a device in an electric circuit as the energy
transferred per coulomb of charge passing through the device.
In an electric field, we can follow exactly the same idea to find out how much kinetic energy
a charged particle will gain by moving within the field.
This is given by the equation:
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑉𝑄
Example 3
What is the velocity of the electron after it has been accelerated though a p.d. of 1000
V in a uniform electric field?
Answer
1
𝑉𝑄 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
1
1 000 𝑥 1.6 𝑥 10−19 = 2 𝑥 9.11 𝑥 10−31 𝑥 𝑣 2
𝑣 = 1.87 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑠 −1

Example 4
a) What force will an electron feel when it is in an X – ray machine’s electric field
which has a strength of 4.5 x 105 Vm-1?
Answer
𝐹 = 𝐸𝑄 = 4.5 𝑥 105 𝑉𝑚−1 𝑥 − 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝐶 = −7.2 𝑥 10−14 𝑁
The minus sign indicates that the electron will feel a force trying to accelerate it towards
the more positive end of the field. This is the opposite direction to the to the conventional
field direction which like electric current, goes from positive to negative.

4
b) How fast will the electron be travelling if this field accelerates it from rest and it
is within the field for a distance of 10 cm?
Answer
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑢 = 0

2𝐸𝑄𝑠
𝑣 = √2𝑎𝑠 = √ 𝑚

2 𝑥 (4.5 𝑥 105 )(−1.6 𝑥 10−19 ) 𝑥 0.1

𝑣= √ 9.11 𝑥 10−31

𝑣 = −1.26 𝑥 108 𝑚𝑠 −1

c) What is the kinetic energy of the electron in part (b)?

1 1
𝐸𝑘 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝑥 9.11 𝑥 10−31 𝑥 (1.26 𝑥 108 )2 = 7.2 𝑥 10−15 𝐽

d) What is the kinetic energy gained by an electron as it is accelerated through a P.D

of 45 kV?
Answer
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑉𝑄 = 45 000 𝑥 1.6 𝑥 10−19 = 7.2 𝑥 10−15 𝐽
The answer in (c) and (d) are the same because they are calculations of the same thing,
looked at from different perspectives.

e) In the X – ray machine, there is a P.D of 45 kV between the cathode and the anode,
which are 10 cm apart. What is the electric field strength between the plates?
Answer
𝑉 45 000
𝐸=𝑑 = = 4.5 𝑥 105 𝑉𝑚−1
0.1

5
 Potential gradient and equipotential surfaces
10 cm

X Y
Cathode Anode

Accelerating
electron

Field lines

0V 2 kV

Equipotential lines

Equipotential lines – means a line joining all the points on an electric field that have the
same potential or voltage.
An equipotential line is always 900 to the field direction.
Equipotentials - are positions within a field with zero potential difference between them.
If a voltage sensor is moved from 0 V TO 2 000 V stopping at equal distances, the drop in
voltage can be used to draw a voltage – distance graph that will show voltage drop per unit
length.

2 000 V

10 cm d

6
 𝑉 2 000 𝑣
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = = 20 𝑘𝑉𝑚−1
𝑑 0.1 𝑚

Hence, gradient can be used to determine the electric field strength.

Voltage = work done per unit charge (energy, E per unit charge)
𝐸
𝑉= 𝑄

𝐸 = 𝑄𝑉
This energy changes to kinetic energy of charged particles.
1
𝑄𝑉 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

In an equipotential, ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑄∆𝑉 = 0
Hence, work done = 0
Kinetic energy gained = 0
*Any increase in kinetic energy must involve a change in voltage.

Example 5
In the electron beam of a cathode ray oscilloscope, electrons are accelerated through
a potential difference of 3 000 V, which is set up between parallel plate electrodes
that are 3 cm apart.
a) Calculate the electric field strength between these electrodes, assuming it’s a
uniform field.
Answer
𝑉 3 000 𝑉
𝐸=𝑑 = = 1 𝑥 105 𝑉𝑚−1
0.03 𝑐𝑚

b) How much faster will the electrons be moving when they emerge from this field?

Answer
1
𝑄𝑉 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

2𝑄𝑉 2 𝑥 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝑥 3 000

𝑣 = √ = √ = 3.25 𝑥 107 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑚 9.11 𝑥 10−31

7
c) Draw a diagram to illustrate the field produced by these plates.

Answer

0V 3 000 V

Electron

cathode anode

d) Explain how the field’s effects would be different if a proton were placed in it.
Answer
If a proton is placed it would go in the opposite direction. It would be repelled by the anode
towards the cathode. Speed would be less.

RADIAL ELECTRIC FIELDS

8
In the region around a positively charged sphere, or point charge like a proton, the electric
field will act outwards. In negative, the field lines will act inwards.
The arrows in the diagram get further apart as distance from sphere increases. Hence, the
field strength decreases.
The equipotential lines also get further apart, so the potential change will be less quickly as
well.
Radial fields are produced by positive or negative point charges. They obey the inverse
square law.
Field strength, E

64

16

1 2 4 Radius, r

For any inverse square law relationship,

1
𝐴𝛼 𝐵2
𝑘
𝐴= 𝐵2

𝐴𝐵 2 = 𝑘
𝐴1 𝐵12 = 𝐴2 𝐵22
𝑒. 𝑔 64 𝑥 11 = 16 𝑥 22

NOTE:
 The direction of the radial field is defined as the direction of motion of a point
positive charge, that is from +𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑣𝑒.

9
  Radial fields occupy surface area of a sphere. Hence increase in radius increases the
surface area of the field by a factor of 4𝜋𝑟 2 . Hence field strength would reduce by
the square of the radius (inverse square law)
 Equipotential surface is perpendicular to field direction since field strength and
voltage reduces. Equal drop in voltage involves increasing distance.

Radial electric field strength

Electric field strength weakens with distance from the point charge.
The expression for radial field strength at a distance, r form a charge, Q is:
𝑄
𝐸 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜀0 = 8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝐹𝑚−1 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒.
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

It is a constant, which relates to the ability of the fabric of the universe to support electric
fields.

Example 6
What is the electric field strength at a distance of 1 angstrom, Å (1 x 10-10 m) from a
proton?

Answer

𝑄 1.6 𝑥 10−19
𝐸 = 2
= −12 −10 2
= 1.44 𝑥 1011 𝑉𝑚−1
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 8.85 𝑥 10 𝑥 (1 𝑥 10 )

Potential in a radial electric field

Electric field strength tells us how quickly the electric potential is changing.
A strong field will have the equipotentials closer together.
This equation states that the electric field strength, E, is equal to the rate of change of
potential, V, with distance, x.
−𝑑𝑉
𝐸 = 𝑑𝑥

This leads to the expression for radial field potential at a distance, r from a charge, Q:
𝑄
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

10
Example 7
What is the electric potential at a distance of 1 Å (1 x 10-10 m) from a proton?
Answer

𝑄 1.6 𝑥 10−19
𝑉 = = = 1.44 𝑉
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (1.0 𝑥 10−10 )

COMBINED RADIAL FIELDS

In a region where there are electric fields caused by more than one charged object, the
overall field is the vector sum at each point of all the contributions from each field.

11
COULOMB’S LAW
Coulomb’s law is used to calculate the force between two charges.

Q1 Q2
_
+ F Attractive force

+ F + Repulsive force

_ _
F Repulsive force

The force between two charged particles is:

(a) Directly proportional to product of charges

𝐹 𝛼 𝑄1 𝑄2

(b) Inversely proportional to square of distance apart:

1
𝐹 𝛼 𝑟2
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹𝛼
𝑟2
𝒌𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐 1
𝑭 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = → Coulomb’s constant
𝒓𝟐 4𝜋𝜀0

𝑘 = 8.99 𝑥 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2

𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
Therefore: 𝑭 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

12
Example 8
What is the force of attraction between the electron and proton in a hydrogen atom?
(𝒓 = 𝟓. 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎, 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪, 𝑸𝟐 = −𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪)

Answer
𝑄1 𝑄2 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝑥 −1.6 𝑥 10−19
𝐹 = = = −8.2 𝑥 10−8 𝑁
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 4 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (5.3 𝑥 10−11 )2

Field strength

_
Q2
r

+
Q1

The electric field strength, E, of Q1 onto Q2, r, distance away:

𝐹
𝐸 = 𝑄2

𝑘 𝑄1 𝑄2 1
𝐸= 𝑥
𝑟2 𝑄2

𝑘𝑄1
𝐸= 𝑟2

𝒌𝑸
i.e 𝑬 = electric field created by a proton charge
𝒓𝟐
1
𝐸𝛼 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤)
𝑟2

13
Work done in moving charge:
𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑥 𝑑
𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑊 = 𝑥 𝑟
𝑟2

𝒌𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑾 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝒓

Example 9
What is the strength of the electric field caused by a gold nucleus (atomic number
79) at a distance of 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎 (𝟏 𝒑𝒎) form the center of the nucleus?
Answer
𝑘𝑄 8.99 𝑥 109 𝑥 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝑥 79
𝐸= = = 1.14 𝑥 1017 𝑉𝑚−1
𝑟2 (1 𝑥 10−12 )2

Example 9
A force of 100N is directed north on a −𝟐𝟎𝝁C point charge. What is the magnitude
and direction of the electric field at this point?
Answer
𝐹 100 𝑁
F 𝐸= = = 5 𝑥 106 𝑁𝐶 −1
𝑄 20 𝑥 10−6 𝐶

Task
1. A positive charge of +50𝜇C is placed in an electric field of 50 000𝑁𝐶 −1 directed in the
upward direction. What mass should the charge have to remain suspended in air?
2. A +200𝜇𝐶 charge is placed at the origin and a −300𝜇𝐶 charge is placed 1𝑚 to the right
of it.
a) What is the magnitude of the electric field midway between the two charges?
b) What is the magnitude of the electric field 30 cm to the right of the negative charge?

14
Experimental verification of Coulomb’s law
This experiment involved measuring the force between charged spheres on a torsion
(rotating) balance and fixed charged spheres.

- By reducing the separation of the spheres, you will see the angle of the lighter hanging
ball increase.
- You can investigate the force between charged spheres and confirm that there is an
inverse square law involved, and that the force is proportional to the product of the
charges.
- The forces on the hanging ball are shown below:

- By resolving and equating the horizontal and vertical components, we can develop a
method of verifying Coulomb’s law:
15
𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝑇 sin 𝜃 (Horizontal component of tension)

Vertical component of tension:

𝑚𝑔 = 𝑇 cos 𝜃

Dividing the two equations gives:

𝑇 sin 𝜃 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
=
𝑇 cos 𝜃 𝑚𝑔

𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
tan 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑑
For small angles, tan 𝜃 = (you need a long piece of thread to allow this)
𝐿

𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑑
=
𝑚𝑔 𝐿

𝑚𝑔𝑑
𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝐿

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑚𝑔𝑑
= or
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝐿

𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑚𝑔𝑑
=
𝑟2 𝐿

For a fixed amount of charge on the spheres, you could vary r and measured d, from
1
which a plot of 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑑 should produce a straight line.

1
𝑟2

16
- It is very difficult to specifically control the amount of charge placed on the spheres, but
having charged them both up, touching one with a third, uncharged, sphere can remove
half the charge on that one.
- Doing this several times, and measuring d in each case, will allow you to confirm that
𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 is proportional to the product of the two charges.

Task
Jasmin and Izaac undertook an experiment to test Coulomb’s law, following the method
above. The measurement they took are as follows:
d/m r/m
0.002 0.036
0.004 0.028
0.006 0.024
0.008 0.021
0.010 0.019
0.012 0.018
0.014 0.016
0.016 0.014

Draw an appropriate graph to analyse their results to show that the Coulomb’s force
follows an inverse square relationship.

17
Millikan’s oil drop experiment
The figure below shows the schematic of Millikan’s oil drop chamber.

- The oil is vaporized. When the oil particles are squirted into the chamber, they gain a
positive charge.
- The charged particles fall down due to gravity.
- When they pass through the anode the particles get accelerated towards the cathode
because positive charge attracts negative charge.
- The voltage is varied until the resultant force acting on the particle is zero.
- The only two forces acting on the particle are the weight of the particle and the force
due to the electric field since the experiment is carried out in a vacuum.

+ve
F = EQ

d
Particle stationary

mg
-ve

18
 𝑉
𝐸= 𝑑
𝑉
𝐹= 𝑥𝑄
𝑑

𝑚𝑔 = 𝐹 resultant force is zero

𝑉
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑥𝑄
𝑑

Task
1. The figure below shows a positively charged oil drop held at rest between two parallel
conducting plates, A and B.

a) The oil drop has a mass of 9.79 x 10-15 kg. the potential difference between the
plates is 5 000V and plate B is at a potential of 0V. Is plate A positive or negative?

b) Draw a labelled free body force diagram which shows the forces acting on the drop.

c) Calculate the electric field strength between the plates.

d) Calculate the magnitude of the charge Q on the drop.

e) How many electrons would have to be removed from a neutral oil drop for it to
acquire this charge?

2. Two identical table tennis balls, M and N, are attached to non-conducting threads and
suspended from a point P. The balls are each given the same positive charge and they
hang as shown in the diagram. The mass of each ball is 2.7 g.

19
(a) Draw a free-body force diagram for ball M, label your diagram with the names of
the forces.(2)

(b) (i) Show that the tension in one of the threads is about 3 × 10–2 N.(3)

(ii) Show that the electrostatic force between the balls is about 2 × 10–2 N.(2)

(iii) Calculate the charge on each ball.(3)

(c) State and explain what would have happened if the charge given to ball M was
greater than the charge given to ball N.(2)

20