Chapter 1|Basic Electrical

Ideas
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this chapter, it is expected that the students
will be able to:
1. Describe the general aspects of generation of direct
current systems.
2. Explain the relationships between basic electrical
quantities: voltage, current and power.

01|Introduction
mass, volume, or density. It is measurable. Just as you
Electric circuits, which are collections of circuit elements
can quantify how much mass something has; you can
connected, are the most fundamental structures of
measure how much charge it has. The key concept with
electrical engineering. A circuit is an interconnection of
charge is that it can come in two types: positive (+) or
simple electrical devices that have at least one closed
negative (-).
path in which current may flow. However, we may have
In order to move charge, we need charge carriers,
to clarify to some of our readers what is meant by
and that's where our knowledge of atomic particles--
“current” and “electrical device,” a task that we shall
specifically electrons and protons – comes in handy.
undertake shortly. Circuits are important in electrical
Electrons always carry a negative charge, while protons
engineering because they process electrical signals,
are always positively charged. Neutrons (true to their
which carry energy and information; a signal can be any
name) are neutral, they have no charge. Both electrons
time varying electrical quantity. Engineering circuit
and protons carry the same amount of charge, just a
analysis is a mathematical study of some useful
different type.
interconnection of simple electrical devices. An electric
circuit, as discussed in this module, is an idealized
mathematical model of some physical circuit or
phenomenon. The ideal circuit elements are the resistor,
the inductor, the capacitor, and the voltage and current
sources. The ideal circuit model helps us to predict,
mathematically, the approximate behavior of the actual
event. The models also provide insights into how to
design a physical electric circuit to perform a desired
task. Electrical engineering is concerned with the
analysis and design of electric circuits, systems, and
Figure 1 - A lithium atom (3 protons) model with charges labeled.
devices. In Chapter 1 we shall deal with the fundamental
concepts that underlie all circuits. The charge of electrons and protons is important
because it provides us with the means to exert a force on
02|Theory of Electricity them. Electrostatic force!
What is Electricity?
Electricity is a natural phenomenon associated with Electrostatic Force
stationery or moving electric charges. Electric charge is Electrostatic force (also called Coulomb's law) is a force
a fundamental property of matter and is borne by that operates between charges. It states that charges of
elementary particles. In electricity the particle involved is the same type repel each other, while charges of
the electron, which carries a charge designated, by opposite types are attracted together. Opposites attract
convention, as negative. Thus, the various and likes repel.
manifestations of electricity are the result of the
accumulation or motion of numbers of electrons.

Flowing Charges
As we mentioned, electricity is defined as the flow of
electric charge. Charge is a property of matter – just like

Figure 2 - Response of charges (attraction and repulsion)
The amount of force acting on two charges depends
on how far they are from each other. The closer two
charges get, the greater the force (either pushing
together, or pulling away) becomes.
Thanks to electrostatic force, electrons will push
away other electrons and be attracted to protons. This
force is part of the "glue" that holds atoms together, but
it's also the tool we need to make electrons (and
charges) flow!
Making Charges Flow
We now have all the tools to make charges flow.
Electrons in atoms can act as our charge carrier,
because every electron carries a negative charge. If we
can free an electron from an atom and force it to move,
we can create electricity.
Consider the atomic model of a copper atom, one of
the preferred elemental sources for charge flow. In its
balanced state, copper has 29 protons in its nucleus and
an equal number of electrons orbiting around it.
Electrons orbit at varying distances from the nucleus of
the atom. Electrons closer to the nucleus feel a much
stronger attraction to the center than those in distant
orbits. The outermost electrons of an atom are called the
valence electrons, these require the least amount of
force to be freed from an atom.
Figure 3 - This is a copper atom diagram: 29 protons in the
nucleus, surrounded by bands of circling electrons. Electrons
closer to the nucleus are hard to remove while the valence (outer
ring) electron requires relatively little energy to be ejected from
the atom.
Using enough electrostatic force on the valence
electron--either pushing it with another negative charge
or attracting it with a positive charge--we can eject the
electron from orbit around the atom creating a free
electron.
Now consider a copper wire: matter filled with
countless copper atoms. As our free electron is floating
in a space between atoms, it's pulled and prodded by
surrounding charges in that space. In this chaos the free
electron eventually finds a new atom to latch on to; in
doing so, the negative charge of that electron ejects
another valence electron from the atom. Now a new
electron is drifting through free space looking to do the
same thing. This chain effect can continue on and on to
create a flow of electrons called electric current.
Figure 4 - A very simplified model of charges flowing through
atoms to make current.
03|History of Electricity
A Greek named Thales discovered that
amber when rubbed with silk, attracted
feathers and other light objects. This is
600 BC static electricity. The Greek word for
amber is 'ëelectron', which is where
words such as 'electricity' and 'electron'
come from.
William Gilbert, who was a scientist and
physician to Queen Elizabeth I,
invented the term 'electricity'. He was
1600 the first person to recognize that there
was a connection between magnetism
and electricity, and the first to describe
the Earth's magnetic field.
Francis Hauksbee invented neon light.
He created electrical effects by placing
mercury into a glass globe, pumping
out the air and spinning it. When he did
1705
this in the dark and then rubbed it with
his bare hand, it glowed. He had
invented neon light, without even
knowing it.
Benjamin Franklin, a famous U.S.
politician, proved that lightning is a
1752
form of electricity by flying a kite with a
metal tip into a thunderstorm.
An Italian man named Luigi Galvani
discovered that when he touched a
1780 dead frog's leg with a knife, it twitched
violently. Later, Alessandro Volta
showed that this was because
 electricity is created when moisture
(from the frog) comes into contact with
two different types of metal (the steel
knife and a tin plate), then electricity is
created.
Alessandro Volta created the very first
simple battery using pure silver and
zinc discs, placed between muslin
which was dampened with a salt
solution. This was developed from
Galvani's experiment with the frog's
legs.
During the same year, Sir Humphry
1800
Davy discovered electrolysis. When he
passed an electrical current through
some substances, they'd begin to
decompose. This became known as
electrolysis. Davy's experiments later
led to the discovery of a range of
elements, including calcium,
magnesium, strontium, and barium.
Magnetic fields caused by electricity
were discovered. Hans Christian
Oersted, from Denmark, found that
1820 when electricity flows through a wire, it
generates a magnetic field which
affects the needle of a nearby
compass.
Michael Faraday discovered that when
a magnet is moved inside the coil of a
copper wire, a tiny electric current flow
through the wire. This discovery led to
the invention of electric motors.
1821
In the same year, Thomas Johann
Seebeck discovered thermo-
electricity. He found that when the
junctions of certain metals are heated,
electricity flows through them.
André Ampère published his theories
about electricity and magnetism,
explaining the electro-dynamic theory.
1826
He was the first person to explain this
theory. The unit for electrical currents,
ampere or amps, is named after him.
A German college teacher named
George Ohm published his complete
1827 mathematical theory of electricity.
Now, the unit of electrical resistance
(ohm) is named after him.
Joseph Henry showed that a wire
1829 wrapped in coils produces a greater
electromagnetism than a straight one.
Joseph Henry discovered the
1830 principles of the dynamo — an
electrical generator.
Michael Faraday demonstrated
electromagnetic induction by passing a
magnet through a coil of wire.
1831
Charles Wheatstone and William
Fothergill Cooke also created the first
telegraph machine.
Thomas Edison built a DC (direct
current) electric generator. After this,
1870s
he provided all of New York's
electricity.
Nikola Tesla developed an AC
(alternating current) motor and a
system of AC power generation.
Thomas Edison believed this to be a
threat to his DC supply, so he spread
stories that it wasn't safe to use.
However, after Tesla's system was
used to power 100,000 electric lights
at Chicago's World Fair in 1893, AC
became the established power supply
in the USA.
1880s Tesla also invented the Tesla Coil. He
used this coil to make ordinary
household currents produce extremely
high-frequency currents. This was
used to develop some of the first neon
and fluorescent lights.
Between 1880 and 1883, the
Wimshurst machine (an electrostatic
generator) was developed for
generating high voltages of electricity.
It was invented by a British inventor
named James Wimshurst.
The first public electricity supply in the
1881 UK was generated in Godalming,
Surrey, using a waterwheel at a mill.
Turbine-driven generators were
1890
introduced to produce electricity.
Nikola Tesla's hydroelectric power
generators at Niagara Falls come into
operation. Within a few years, these
1896 generators were supplying electricity
to New York City for the elevated
railways, the subways, and the lights
on Broadway.
In the 1930s and 1940s, hydroelectric
power stations were built in Scotland
and Wales, even though most
electricity still came from burning coal.
1930s Household electrical appliances were
introduced, and mains powered radios,
vacuum cleaners, fridges, and irons
became a part of almost every
household by the 1940s.
04|How is Electricity Produced? Electricity Produced from Heat
Electricity Produced from Frictional Energy (Static The amount of charge
Electricity) produced depends on
Frictional Electricity is the least important of all methods the difference in
to produce electricity. It can be produced by rubbing temperature between
certain dissimilar materials together. One application of junction and the
static electricity is in a device used in atomic research opposite ends of two
called Van de Graf generator that will generate miniature wires. A greater
bolts of Lighting. temperature difference
results in a greater
charge. Electricity is
produced by heating
the junction of a
Figure 7 - Thermoelectric Generator
thermocouple.

Electricity Produced from Chemical Reaction

Electric cells are electricity produced by chemical
reactions.

Figure 5 - Static Electricity

Electricity produced from Pressure

Electricity produced from pressure is called
piezoelectricity, which is produced by certain crystalline
materials such as quartz and barium titanate. If a crystal
made of this material is placed between two metal plates
and pressure is exerted on the plates, an electric charge
Figure 8 - Electricity produced from chemical reaction.
will be developed but the amount of charge will depend
on the amount of pressure exerted.
Electricity Produced from Light
The electricity is produced by light striking photosensitive
materials. These materials release electrons when
excited by light under the right conditions. These
releases of electrons are called photoelectric effect.

Figure 6 - Piezoelectricity

Figure 9 - Diagram of Solar Energy

Electricity Produced from Magnetism
Electricity produced by relative movement of a magnet
and a wire that result in the cutting of lines of force. The
amount of electricity produced will depend on:
a. the number of turns in coil;
b. the speed with which relative motions of the coil
and the magnet take place;
c. the strength of the magnet
Figure 10 - Simple Electric Generator
05|Electrical Quantities
In describing the operation of electric circuits, one should
be familiar with such electrical quantities as charge,
current, and voltage. The material of this section will serve
as a review since it will not be entirely new to most readers.
Electric Charge
The unit of charge is the coulomb (C) where one coulomb
is one ampere second. (1 coulomb = 6.24 x1018
electrons). The coulomb is defined as the quantity of
electricity which flows past a given point in an electric
circuit when a current of one ampere is maintained for one
second. Thus, charge in coulombs is:
Where is the current in amperes and is time in seconds.
EXAMPLE
If a current of 5A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of
electricity transferred.
Current
The rate of movement of net positive charge per unit of
time through a cross section of a conductor is known as
current,
Electric Potential and Voltage
When electrical forces act on a particle, it will possess
potential energy. To describe the potential energy that a
particle will have at a point x, the electric potential at point
x is defined a
where ) is the potential energy that a particle with
charge q has when it is located at the position . The zero
point of potential energy can be chosen arbitrarily since
only differences in energy have practical meaning. The
point where electric potential is zero is known as the
reference point or ground point,
point with respect to which
potentials at other points are then described. The potential
difference is known as the voltage expressed in volts (V)
or joules per coulomb (J/C).
Energy and Power
If a charge gives up energy when going from point
a to point b, then the voltage across those points is defined
as
If is positive, point a is at the higher potential. The
voltage between two points is the work per unit positive
charge required to move that charge between the two
points. If and have the same sign, then energy is
delivered by a positive charge going from a to b (or a
negative charge going the other way). Conversely,
charged particles gain energy inside a source where dw
and have opposite polarities.
Figure 11 - Load and source conventions
The load and source conventions are shown in Figure 11,
in which point a is at a higher potential than point b. The
load receives or absorbs energy because a positive
charge goes in the direction of the current arrow from
higher to lower potential. The source has a capacity to
supply energy. The voltage source is sometimes known as
an electromotive force (emf), to convey the notation that it
is a force that drives the current through the circuit.
The instantaneous power p is defined as the rate of
doing work or the rate of change of energy ,

or

The electric power consumed or produced by a circuit

element is given by its voltage–current product, expressed
in volt-amperes (VA) or watts (W). The energy over a time
interval is found by integrating power,,

or

which is expressed in watt-seconds or joules (J), or 06|Circuit Elements

commonly in electric utility bills in kilowatthours (kWh).
Note that 1 kWh equals 3.6 × 106 J.
EXAMPLE
A typical 12-V automobile battery, storing about 5
megajoules (MJ) of energy, is connected to a 4-A headlight
system.
a. Find the power delivered to the headlight system.
b. Calculate the energy consumed in 1 hour of
operation.
c. Express the auto-battery capacity in ampere-
hours (Ah) and compute how long the headlight
system can be operated before the battery is
completely discharged.
A source–load combination is represented in Figure 12. A
node is a point at which two or more components or
devices are connected. A part of a circuit containing only
one component, source, or device between two nodes is
known as a branch.
branch A voltage rise indicates an electric
source, with the charge being raised to a higher potential,
whereas a voltage drop indicates a load, with a charge
going to a lower potential. The voltage across the source
is the same as the voltage across the load in Figure 12.
The current delivered by the source goes through the load.
Ideally, with no losses, the power ( ) delivered by
the source is consumed by the load.

Figure 12 - Source-Load combination.

When current flows out of the positive terminal of an

electric source, it implies that non-electric energy has been
transformed into electric energy. Examples include
mechanical energy transformed into electric energy as in
the case of a generator source, chemical energy changed
into electric energy as in the case of a battery source, and
solar energy converted into electric energy as in the case
of a solar-cell source. On the other hand, when current
flows in the direction of voltage drop, it implies that electric
energy is transformed into nonelectric energy. Examples
include electric energy converted into thermal energy as in
the case of an electric heater, electric energy transformed
into mechanical energy as in the case of motor load, and
electric energy changed into chemical energy as in the
case of a charging battery.
Batteries and AC outlets are the familiar electric
sources. These are voltage sources.sources An ideal voltage
source is one whose terminal voltage is a specified
function of time, regardless of the current through the
source. An ideal battery has a constant voltage with
respect to time, as shown in Figure 13(a). It is known as a
dc source, because is a direct current. Figure 13(b)
shows the symbol and time variation for a sinusoidal
voltage source with ! . The positive sign on
the source symbol indicates instantaneous polarity of the
terminal at the higher potential whenever "#$ % is
positive. A sinusoidal source is generally termed an ac
source because such a voltage source tends to produce
an alternating current.
Figure 13 - Voltage sources. (a) Ideal dc source (battery). (b)
Ideal sinusoidal ac source.
The concept of an ideal current source,
source although less
familiar but useful as we shall see later, is defined as one
whose current is a specified function of time, regardless
of the voltage across its terminals. The circuit symbols and
the corresponding – curves for the ideal voltage and
current sources are shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14 - Circuit symbols and i–v curves. (a) Ideal voltage
source. (b) Ideal current source.
Even though ideal sources could theoretically produce
infinite energy, one should recognize that infinite values are
physically impossible. Various circuit laws and device
representations or models are approximations of physical
reality, and significant limitations of the idealized concepts
or models need to be recognized. Simplified
representations or models for physical devices are the
most powerful tools in electrical engineering. As for ideal
sources, the concept of constant V or constant for dc
sources and the general idea of or being a specified
function of time should be understood.
When the source voltage or current is independent of
all other voltages and currents, such sources are known
as independent sources.
sources There are dependent or
controlled sources,
sources whose voltage or current does depend
on the value of some other voltage or current. As an
example, a voltage amplifier producing an output voltage
' ( ) , where ) is the input voltage and ( is the
constant-voltage amplification factor, is shown in Figure
15, along with its controlled-source model using the
diamond-shaped symbol. Current sources controlled by a
current or voltage will also be considered eventually.
Figure 15 - Voltage amplifier and its controlled-source model.
07|Lumped-Circuit Elements
Electric circuits or networks are formed by interconnecting
various devices, sources, and components. Although the
effects of each element (such as heating effects, electric-
field effects, or magnetic-field effects) are distributed
throughout space, one often lumps them together as
lumped elements.
elements The passive components are the
resistance * representing the heating effect, the
capacitance + representing the electric-field effect, and
the inductance , representing the magnetic-field effect.
Their characteristics will be presented in this section. The
capacitor models the relation between voltage and current
due to changes in the accumulation of electric charge, and
the inductor models the relation due to changes in
magnetic flux linkages, as will be seen later. While these
phenomena are generally distributed throughout an
electric circuit, under certain conditions they can be
concentrated at certain points and can therefore be
represented by lumped parameters.
Resistance
An ideal resistor is a circuit element with the property that
the current through it is linearly proportional to the potential
difference across its terminals, * is known as the
resistance of the resistor with the SI unit of ohms (Ω), and
- is the reciprocal of resistance called conductance,
conductance with
the SI unit of siemens (S). The circuit symbols of fixed and
variable resistors are shown in Figure 16. Most resistors
used in practice are good approximations to linear
resistors for large ranges of current, and their
– characteristic (current versus voltage plot) is a straight
line.
 6
7 47 6 4 : 1 mil 6
4
3 45 6 4 mil6
2 4 4 4

By definition, the area is also equivalent to 1 circular mil

Figure 16 - Circuit symbols of fixed and variable resistors and (CM), so
illustration of Ohm’s law.
4
1 CM mil6
4
Resistance and Resistivity
The ability of any conductor in an electrical circuit to pass
current is judged by its electrical resistance.
resistance Resistance is The formula for the area of an arbitrary circle in circular
the ability to oppose the flow of electric current. The mils can be derived by applying this conversion factor to
greater the value of resistance of any conductor, the less the standard formula for the area of a circle (which gives
current will flow. The resistance of a conductor depends its result in square mils).
mainly on three things:
length , of the conductor or material
1. The length, EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
2. The cross- area ( of the conductor or
cross-sectional area, 1. Find the area of a material with a diameter of 0.46
material inches in terms of:
3. The material of which the conductor is made a. Circular mils (CM)
Because the resistance is greater in longer conductors b. Square mils
than in shorter ones, then: Note: 1 inch = 1000mils

RESISTANCE (*) ( ) IS PROPORTIONAL TO LENGTH (,))

and is written as
* ∝ ,
Therefore, the longer the conductor, the more resistance
is present and so less current flows.
Also, because resistance is less in conductors with a large
cross-sectional area:

RESISTANCE (*)
( ) IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA (()
( )

Which is written as
/
* ∝
(
The greater the cross-sectional area, the more current can
flow along the conductor, so the lower the value of the
conductor’s resistance.
2. Find the area of a square conductor if each side
Cross-
Cross-sectional Area, Circular Mils and Square Mils
measures of 0.25 inches in terms of:
1. When the conductor has a circular cross section,
a. Square mils
having a diameter in terms of mils, the area of a
b. Circular mils (CM)
circle can be found by using the formula:

( 0
120

2. If the cross section of the conductor is square or

rectangular, the cross-sectional area of the
conductor can still be found by simply multiplying
the width by the height.

( 0

Square Mils
In square mils, the area of a circle with a diameter of 1 mil
is:
Resistivity
One way to describe a material (any material) is by its 2. Determine the resistance of a bus bar of copper if the
resistivity.
resistivity This is the amount of resistance present in a length is 10 meters long and the cross section is 4cm x
piece of the material of standard dimensions.
dimensions Every 4 cm.
material can be defined in this way.
The resistivity, as shown in Figure 17, of any material is
defined as the resistance of a piece of that material having
a length of one meter and a cross-sectional area of one
square meter (i.e. a cube of material one meter square);
the resistivity of the material being the resistance across
opposite faces of the standard cube. Resistivity is given the
symbol A and is measured in a unit called the ohmmeters
(Ω--m) or Ω--CM/ft.
CM/ft (Note: this is not the same as
ohms/metre or ohms per metre)
So the resistance of any conductor or material can be
found by relating the three factors. The foof any conductor
and/or material, provided that its dimension and its
resistivity are known.
A,
*
(

3. A copper tubing has an outside diameter of 1.72cm

Figure 17 - Resistance and Resistivity
and an inside diameter of 0.9525cm, determine the
Table 1. Resistivity of Some Materials resistance of a 20 kilometer of tubing.

A (Ω--m) A (Ω--CM/ft)
Material
@ 20 C
̊ @ 20 C̊
Silver 1.59 : 10-8 9.90
Annealed
1.72 : 10-8 10.37
Copper
Hard-drawn
1.68: 10-8 10.66
Copper
Aluminum 2.82 : 10 -8
17.00
Tungsten 5.60 : 10-8 33.00

Table 1 lists the values of the resistivity for some materials.

Sample Problems:
Problems:
1. A no. 14 gauge copper wire, commonly used in
extension cords, has a circular diameter of 64.1 mils.
Determine the resistance of 100-ft long wire at 20˚C.
Solution:
Temperature Effects on Resistance
Although the resistance of a conductor changes with the
size of the conductor (e.g., thicker wires have less
resistance to current flow than thinner wires), the
resistance of a conductor also changes with changing
temperature. This may be expected to happen because,
as temperature changes, the dimensions of the conductor
will change as it expands or contracts.
However, materials that are classed as
CONDUCTORS tend to INCREASE their resistance with
an increase in temperature. INSULATORS however are
liable to DECREASE their resistance with an increase in
temperature. Materials used for practical insulators (glass,
plastic etc.) only exhibit a marked drop in their resistance
at very high temperatures. They remain good insulators
over all temperatures they are likely to encounter in use.
These changes in resistance cannot therefore be
explained by a change in dimensions due to thermal
expansion or contraction. In fact, for a given size of
conductor the change in resistance is due mainly to a
change in the resistivity of the material and is caused by
the changing activity of the atoms that make up the
material.
Temperature and Atomic Structure
The reasons for these changes in resistivity can be
explained by considering the flow of current through the
material. The flow of current is the movement of electrons
from one atom to another under the influence of an electric
field. Electrons are very small negatively charged particles
and will be repelled by a negative electric charge and
attracted by a positive electric charge. Therefore, if an
electric potential is applied across a conductor (positive at
one end, negative at the other) electrons will "migrate" from
atom to atom towards the positive terminal.
Only some electrons are free to migrate, however.
Others within each atom are held so tightly to their atom
that even an electric field will not dislodge them. The
current flowing in the material is therefore due to the
movement of "free electrons" and the number of free
electrons within any material compared with those tightly
bound to their atoms is what governs whether a material is
a good conductor (many free electrons) or a good insulator
(hardly any free electrons).
The effect of heat on the atomic structure of a material
is to make the atoms vibrate, and the higher the
temperature the more violently the atoms vibrate.
In a conductor, which already has a large number of
free electrons flowing through it, the vibration of the atoms
causes many collisions between the free electrons and the
captive electrons. Each collision uses up some energy
from the free electron and is the basic cause of resistance.
The more the atoms jostle around in the material, the more
collisions are caused and hence the greater the resistance
to current flow. In an insulator however, there is a slightly
different situation. There are so few free electrons that
hardly any current can flow.
Almost all the electrons are tightly bound within their
atom. Heating an insulating material vibrates the atoms,
and if heated sufficiently, the atoms vibrate violently
enough to shake some of their captive electrons free,
creating free electrons to become carriers of current.
Therefore, at high temperatures the resistance of an
insulator can fall, and in some insulating materials, quite
dramatically.
Figure 18 - Temperature-Resistance effect.
In a material where the resistance INCREASES with an
increase in temperature, the material is said to have a
POSITIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT.
COEFFICIENT
When resistance FALLS with an increase in
temperature, the material is said to have a NEGATIVE
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT.
In general, conductors have a POSITIVE temperature
coefficient, whilst (at high temperatures) insulators have a
NEGATIVE temperature coefficient.
Figure 18 shows the relationship of the temperature in
the resistance of conductors.
Different materials within either group have different
temperature coefficients. Materials chosen for the
construction of the resistors used in electronic circuits are
carefully selected conductors that have a very low positive
temperature coefficient. In use, resistors made from such
materials will have only very slight increases in resistivity,
and therefore their resistance. Using such materials for the
manufacture of resistors creates components whose value
changes only slightly over a given range of temperature.
Materials chosen as insulators will have a very low
NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT over their
working range of temperature.
The temperature-resistance effect is given by the
equation:
B0 B / C/ + EF/ ∆F H
Where:
B/ and B 0 – resistances at temperature F / and F 0 ,
respectively
∆F F0 − F/ – change in temperature, °C
 /
EF/ = JKF – temperature coefficient of resistance in of this coefficient is maximum at 0°C temperature. Say the
/
value of this coefficient of any material at any F 0°C is EF ,
per °C then its value can be determined by the following equation,
J – absolute inferred temperature, °C
/
EF =
Formula of Temperature coefficient of Resistance 1
F0 − F / +
The resistance is B at temperature F = degree αN
centigrade and B F at F F = F degree Centigrade. Using the
graph in Figure 18, Sample Problems
RM tN + t 1. The resistance of a transformer winding is 0.25 ohm at
= 25 ℃. When operating at full load, the temperature of
RN tN + 0
the windings is 75 ℃. The temperature coefficient of the
tN + t resistant of copper at 0 ℃ is 4.27 x 10 – 3 per degree
RM = RN
tN centigrade. What is the winding resistance at full load?

RNt
R M = RN +
tN

1
R M = RN + R t
tN N

1
RM − RN = R t
tN N
Let
1
= αN
tN

E is called the temperature coefficient of the resistance of

the material at 0°C.
From the above equation, the change in electrical
resistance of any substance due to temperature mainly
depends upon three factors – the value of resistance at the
initial temperature, the rise of temperature and the
temperature coefficient of resistance 0°C.
This E is different for different materials, so different 2. The resistance of a bulb filament is 112Ω at a
temperatures are different in different materials. So, the temperature of 110°C. and its resistance is 180Ω at
temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C of any 375 °C. Calculate its temperate coefficient.
substance is the reciprocal of that substance’s inferred
zero resistance temperature.

Table 2. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance of the

Common Electrical Conductors at 20°C

Temperature
Coefficient of
Material
esistance, ̊R S/
Resistance,
@ 20 C̊
Silver 0.0038
Annealed
0.00393
Copper
Hard-drawn
0.00382
Copper
Aluminum 0.00429
Tungsten 0.0045
Gold 0.0034

The temperature coefficient of electrical resistance is

not the same as this E . Table 2 shows the temperature
coefficient of some materials. For any material, the value
3. The resistance of a bulb filament is 100Ω at a Check Point!
temperature of 100°C. If its TCR is 0.005 per °C, its
resistance will become 200Ω at a temperature of?
1. A wire 12m long has a resistance of 1.5 Ω. What will
be the resistance of 16m of the same wire?
a. 16 ohms b. 2 ohms
c. 12 ohms d. 1.4 ohms

2. A sample of copper wire of 0.2mm radius has a

length of 5m. If the resistivity of the copper is 1.7 ×
10-8, what would be the resistance of the wire?
a. 60.49 ohms b. 42.5 ohms
c. 4.25 ohms d. 0.67 ohms

3. The length of a certain conductor of resistance 100

ohms is doubled and its cross-sectional area is
halved. Its new resistance is ____________.
a. 100 ohms b. 200 ohms
c. 50 ohms d. 400 ohms

4. The resistance of a 50m length of wire is found to be

0.83 ohms. Its diameter is 1.15mm. What is its
resistivity and from what metal is it most probably
made?
a. 2.7 × 10-8 aluminum
b. 10.5 × 10-8 iron
c. 17.2 × 10-8 aluminum
d. 1.72 × 10-8 copper

5. What is the length of a copper wire having a radius of

0.25mm if its resistance is found to be 0.2 Ω?
a. 2m b. 2.31m
c. 16.96m d. 1.7m

6. A metal coil has a resistance of 200 ohms when its

mean temperature is 0°C. Calculate the resistance
coil when its mean temperature is 80°C. Temperature
coefficient of the metal is 0.004041°C S/
a. 264.65 ohms b. 264.65 kilo-ohms
c. 286.65 ohms d. 286.65 kilo-ohms

7. A nickel coil has a resistance of 13 ohms at 50°C. If

the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C is
0.006 per °C, the resistance at 0°C is _________.
a. 16.9 ohms b. 10 ohms
c. 43.3 ohms d. 0.1 ohms

8. As spool of #10 AWG aluminum wire is 500 feet long.

If the ambient temperature is 80°F, what is its end-to-
end electrical resistance. Explain all the calculations
necessary to solve this problem.