Electrostatics - Direct Current PDF

Leaning Outcome 2: DEMONSTRATE ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA
2.1. Electrostatic concepts in line with laws of static charges
 Electrostatics is the study of electric Charges at rest
Discovery of Electricity: The ancient Greeks discovered as early as 600 B.C. that after they
rubbed amber with wool, the amber could attract other objects. The word “electric” is derived
from the Greek word electron, meaning amber.
When you scuff your shoes across a nylon carpet, you become electrically charged, and you can
charge a comb by passing it through dry hair.
An atom of any element consists of a small, positively charged nucleus with a number of
electrons some distance away. The nucleus is composed of protons (charge , mass=
and neutrons (uncharged, mass= ); the number of protons in the
nucleus is normally equal to the number of electrons around it, so that the atom as a whole is
electrically neutral. The forces between atoms that hold them together as solids and liquids are
electrical in origin. The mass of the electron is .
Since some atoms can lose electrons and other atoms can gain electrons, it is possible to cause a
transfer of electrons from one object to another. When this takes place, the equal distribution of
the positive and negative charges in each object no longer exists. Therefore, one object will
contain an excess number of electrons and its charge must have a negative, or minus (-), electric
polarity. The other object will contain an excess number of protons and its charge must have a
positive, or plus (+), polarity.
2.1.1. Properties of electric charges
A number of simple experiments demonstrate the existence of electric forces and charges. For
example, a simple experiment is to rub an inflated balloon with wool. The balloon then sticks to
the wall or the ceiling. When materials behave in this way they are said to be electrified, or to
have become electrically charged.
There are two kinds of charge, positive and negative.
APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 1

A. Interaction of electric charges
When a pair of objects contains the same charge, that is, both positive (+) or both negative (-),
the objects are said to have like charges. When pair of bodies contains different charges, that is,
one body is positive (+) while the other body is negative (-), they are said to have unlike or
opposite charges.
Like charges will repel one another and unlike charges will attract one another, as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1
B. Conservation of electric charge
The algebraic sum of charges in the universe is constant. When a particle with charge is
created, a particle with charge – is simultaneously created in the immediate vicinity. When a
particle with a charge disappears, a particle with charge – also disappears in the immediate
vicinity. Hence the net charge of the universe remains constant.
C. Quantization of electric charge
The magnitude of an electric charge always occurs as a multiple of some fundamental unit of
charge, (Electronic charge ). That is, charge occurs as discreet ‘packets’. Experiments have
shown that the electron has the charge, –e, and the proton has an equal and opposite charge, +e.
The unit of charge in SI units is the coulomb (C).
Hence, , where is the number of protons or electrons in excess.

 The charge of an electron is –1.6010-19 C and that of a proton is +1.6010-19 C
Then, any charge can be regarded as positive or negative depending respectively to the number
of protons or electrons in excess with in a charged particle.
Example 1: What is the meaning of ?
 Answer 1: A charge of one positive coulomb means a body contains a charge of

more protons that electrons.

Example 2: How many electrons in excess that are within a charged material?
 Answer 2: Given data: and
From the equation of the quantization property of electric charges,
Hence,
Example 3: A dielectric material has a negative charge of electrons. What is

its charge in coulomb?
 Answer 3: Since the number of the electrons is double the charge of (
electrons),
EXERCISES:
1. A pith has a charge of . (a) Does it contain an excess or a deficiency of

electrons compared with its normal state of electrical neutrality? (b) How many
electrons? Answer: (a) Deficiency of electrons; (b) electrons
2. An iron atom has protons in its nucleus. (a) How many electrons does this atom
contain? (b) How many electrons does the ion contain? Answer: (a) electrons;
(b) electrons
2.1.2. Electric classification of materials

We will classify materials in terms of their ability to conduct electric charges.
A. Conductors – materials through which electric charges can move freely. There are a
large number of free electrons in the material. Most metals are good conductors.
Ex. Copper, silver, gold, iron, aluminium
Within metals one or more of the outer electrons can easily become detached and move around
freely in the material. When such materials become charged in a small area the charge readily
distributes itself over the entire surface of the conductor.
B. Insulators – materials that do not easily allow electric charges to move. There are very
few free electrons in the material. Most non-metals are insulators.
Ex. Glass, rubber, plastic

Here the outer electrons are bound to the atom and do not move around in the material. When
such materials are charged by rubbing, only the area that is rubbed becomes charged and the
charge is unable to move to other regions of the material.
C. Semiconductors – their electrical properties are intermediate between an insulator and a

conductor. In some cases they act as an insulator and in other cases they act as a
conductor.
Ex. Silicon and germanium
Often used in computers and calculators.
2.1.3. Electrification (Charging) methods
 Electrification by rubbing
Plastic rods and fur (real or fake) are particularly good for demonstrating electrostatics,
the interactions between electric charges that are at rest (or nearly so). After being rubbed
on a piece of fur, an amber rod acquires a charge and can attract small objects.
 Electrification by contact
When a negatively charged ebonite rod is rubbed on a metal object, such as a sphere, some of the
excess electrons from the rod are transferred to the sphere. Once the electrons are on the metal
sphere, where they can move readily, they repel one another and spread out over the sphere’s
surface. The insulated stand prevents them from flowing to the earth. When the rod is removed,
the sphere is left with a negative charge distributed over its surface. In a similar manner, the
sphere will be left with a positive charge after being rubbed with a positively charged rod. In this
case, electrons from the sphere would be transferred to the rod. The process of giving one object
a net electric charge by placing it in contact with another object that is already charged is known
as charging by contact.

 Electrification by induction
Consider a negatively charged rubber rod and a neutral uncharged conducting sphere as shown in
Fig. 1.2a. The negatively charged object is far away from the conducting sphere and does not
affect it. As the two objects are brought close to each other the negatively charged rod will attract
positive charges and repel negative charges. That is, the region close to the rod will have an
excess of positive charges, whereas the region furthest away will have an excess of negative
charges. The resulting charge distribution is shown in Fig. 1.2b. This process of influencing a
conducting material is known as induction.
Fig. 1.2
We can charge a conductor by induction as shown in Fig. 1.3a-d. In (a) the region of the sphere
nearest to the rod obtains is positively charged while the region furthest away from the rod is
negatively charged. If a conducting wire is connected to ground some of the electrons are so
strongly repelled by the rod that they move out of the sphere through the wire to earth (b). If the
wire is removed the sphere is left with an excess of positive charges (c).
Finally, if the rod is removed the positive charge will distribute itself uniformly over the sphere
and we are left with the charge distribution shown in (d). So we are left with a sphere that is
positively charged. Note that the charge remaining on the sphere is uniformly distributed over its
surface because of the repulsive forces among the charges. Note also that there was no contact
between the rod and the sphere; the rod induced the charge distribution in the sphere.
Fig. 1.3
A process very similar to induction also takes place in insulators. In most neutral atoms and
molecules, the centre of positive charge coincides with the centre of negative charge. However,
in the presence of a charged object, these centres may shift slightly, resulting in more positive
charge on one side than on the other. This effect is known as polarization. This redistribution of

charge within individual molecules produces an induced charge in the surface of the insulator, as
shown in Fig. 1.4.
Fig. 1.4
2.2. ELECTRIC FORCE

I.2.1. Coulomb’s law
Fig. 1.5
Above we see the repulsive/attractive forces that two particles of same/opposite charges exert on
each other.
We shall see how we can calculate the force between these two particles.
In 1785, Charles Augustin de Coulomb, established the fundamental law of electric force
between two charged particles. Experiments show that an electric force has the following
properties:
1. It is inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance, r, between the two
particles and is along the line joining them.
2. It is proportional to the scalar product of the magnitudes of the charges, q1 and q2, of the
two particles.
3. It is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign and repulsive if the charges have the
same sign.
We can write the magnitude of the electric force that each charge exerts on the other as:
Coulomb’s law (Eq. 1.1)

Then, the proportionality constant of the above equation is known as the Coulomb constant k and k
9
= 8.987510 Nm /C 2 2
 9.010 Nm /C
9 2 2
Hence, , where and is known as electric
permittivity in vacuum.
N.B:
 Coulomb’s law applies only to point charges or particles with a spherical charge
distribution. In a sphere, take r as the distance in reference to the centre point.
 As the force is a vector quantity, it is recommended to specify its relative direction. Then,
by applying coulomb` law, we can have only two points of application pending to the
referred point charge.
and
Even if and are oppositely directed, they have the same magnitudes
The Coulomb force can also be used for measurements of a field force (two objects of masses
and respectively exerting forces on each other even though there is no physical contact
between them). Compare Coulomb force with gravitational force, which is the other one:
where is the gravitational constant
Both are inversely proportional to the square of the distance of separation, r. Instead of the
charge we have the mass of the two objects. However, there are some important differences:
Electric forces can be either attractive or repulsive, but gravitational forces are always attractive.
Also, gravitational forces are much weaker.
I.2.2. Principle of superposition

When more than two charges are present and we want to find the net electric force on one of the
charges, we need to use the principle of superposition.

When several charges are present, the resultant force on any one of them is found by finding the
individual force that every other charge exerts on it and then finding the vector sum of all these
forces.
When doing this we must remember that force is a vector quantity and must be treated as such.
Therefore, the resultant force on any one charge equals the vector sum of the forces exerted by
the individual particles. For example, if you have three charges and you want to find the force on
charge 1 exerted by charge 2 and 3, you first find the force exerted on charge 1 by charge 2 and
the force exerted on charge 1 by charge 3. You then add these two forces together vectorially to
get the resultant force on charge 1.
Example 1: What is the magnitude and direction of the force on a charge of that is
from a charge of ?
 Answer 1: Since , we have from Coulomb’s law that:
The force is directed away from the charge since both charges are positive.
Example 2: Under what circumstances, if any, is the gravitational attraction between two
protons equal to their electrical repulsion?
 Answer 2: Since the proton mass is , the gravitational force between two
protons that are distance apart is
The electric force between the protons is
At every separation , the electric force between the protons is greater that the
gravitational force between them by a factor of more than ; the forces are never
equal.
Example 3: Three point charges are placed on the as shown in the figure below. Find the
net force on the charge due to the two other charges?

 Answer 3: Because unlike charges attract, the forces on charge are as shown. The
magnitudes of and are given by the Coulomb`s law:
From the diagram, as and are oppositely directed and , then the
resultant force on the centre charge is calculated using principle of superposition such
that:
Example 4: As shown in the figure below, two identical balls, each of mass , carry
identical charges and are suspended by two threads of equal length. At equilibrium they position
themselves as shown. Find the charge on either ball?
 Answer 4: Consider the ball on the left. It is in equilibrium under three forces: (1) the
tension in the thread; (2) the force of gravity W and (3) the Coulomb`s repulsion .
Consider and for the ball on the left, we obtain
and

From the above second equation,
Substituting in the first equation gives,
From the Coulomb`s law, as
Hence,
Example 5: The charges shown in the figure below are stationary. Find the force on the
charge due to the other two?
 Answer 5:
From Coulomb`s law, we have:
The resultant force on the charge has components:
Hence,
The resultant force makes an angle with – or

with
Example 6: One charge of is placed at exactly , and a second charge
at . Where can a third be placed so as to experience zero net force due to
the other two?
 Answer 6: Given data: , , and

From Coulomb`s law, we know that:
If the third positively charged must experience a zero net interaction force due to the
other charges:
, iff
By resolving the above quadratic equation, we get that:
Hence, we consider
Exercises
1. Charges of , , and are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle

of side . Calculate the magnitude of the force acting on the charge due to
the other two charges? Answer:
2. Four equal point charges of are placed at the four corners of a square that is
on a side. Find the force on any one the charges due the others? Answer:
outward along the diagonal
3. In the figure below, is a small negatively charged sphere of with of mass.

It is suspended from the roof by an insulating rope which makes an angle of with the
roof. is a small positively charged sphere and it is fixed to the wall by means of an

insulating bracket. Assuming the system is in equilibrium, what is the magnitude of the
charge on ?
2.3. ELECTRIC FIELD

The electric force can act through space, and thus produces an effect even where there is no
contact between the objects involved. An electric field is said to exist around the charged object.
Electric forces arise when a charged object enters this electric field.
Fig. 1.6
In Fig. 1.6 we have a small object with a small positive charge, q0, placed in the electric field of
an object with a larger electric charge, Q.
We define the strength of the electric field at the location of the smaller particle to be the electric
force acting on it divided by the charge:
(Eq. 1.2)
Note that this is the electric field at the location of q0 produced by the charge Q, not the field
produced by q0. The electric field is a vector quantity having the SI units of newtons per coulomb
(N/C). The direction of E at a point is defined to be the direction of the electric force that would
be exerted on a small positive charge placed at that point. As shown in Fig. 1.7 the electric field
is directed out from a positive charge and in to a negative charge. Note that E is the field
produced by some charge external to the test charge – not the field produced by the test charge.

Fig. 1.7
We require the test charge to be small enough to have a negligible effect on the charges on the
sphere. In Fig. 1.8 we see a large test charge. This charge will cause a rearrangement of the
charges of the sphere due to induction and thus the test charge does not have negligible effect on
the sphere. As a result the force on the test charge is different to what it would have been if the
movement of the charges of the sphere had not taken place. The strength of the measured electric
field differs from what it would have been in the absence of the test charge.
Fig. 1.8
We will derive an expression for the electric field caused by a point charge q. Consider a point
charge q located at a distance r from a test charge q0. According to Coulomb’s law, the
magnitude of the force on the test charge is
q q0
F k
r2
Because the magnitude of the electric field due to the charge q is defined as E=F/q0, we see that
the magnitude of the electric field due to the charge q at the position of q0 is
F q q0 q
E k 2
k 2
q0 q0 r r
This can also be written as:
1 q
E (Eq. 1.3)
4 0 r 2

Where 0 is the permittivity of free space and has the value
1 1
0    8.85 10 12 C 2 / N  m 2
4k 4 (9 10 N  m / C )
9 2
If q is positive, the field due to this charge is directed radially outward from q. If q is negative the
field is directed towards q. From Eq. 1.3 we see that the electric field at any given point depends
only on the charge q on the object setting up the field and the distance r from that object to a
specific point in space. Our test charge has no effect on the field. As a result we can say that an
electric field exists at the point whether or not there is a charge located at the point.
2.3.1. Electric Field Lines

A convenient aid for visualizing the electric field is to draw lines pointing in the direction of the
electric field vector at any point. These lines are called electric field lines and are related to the
electric field in the following manner:
1. The electric field vector E is tangent to the electric field lines at each point.
2. The number of lines per unit area is proportional to the strength of the electric field in
that position (this means that E is large when the field lines are close together and small
when they are far apart).
Fig. 1.9
The field lines for a positive charge are shown in Fig. 1.9a and the field lines for a negative
charge are shown in Fig. 1.9b.
Rules for drawing electric field lines:
1. The lines must begin on positive charges and terminate on negative charges, or at infinity
in the case of a lone charge.
2. The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or approaching a negative charge is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
3. No two field lines can cross.
Fig. 1.10
The electric field lines for two point charges of equal magnitude but of opposite sign are shown
in Fig. 1.10. This charge configuration is called an electric dipole.
Fig. 1.11
In Fig. 1.11a the electric field lines for two positive point charges are shown. The lines are nearly
radial at points close to either charge. The same number of lines is shown emerging from each
charge because the charges are equal in magnitude. The lines between the charges are not close
together, indicating that this is a region of low charge density. Finally, in Fig.1.11b we sketch the
electric field lines associated with a positive charge +2q and a negative charge –q. In this case,
the number of lines leaving the charge +2q is twice the number entering the charge –q. The
remaining lines terminate at infinity.
2.3.2. Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium

When there is no net motion of charge within a conductor or on its surface, the conductor is said
to be in electrostatic equilibrium. A conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the following
properties:
1. The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.

2. Any excess charge on an isolated conductor resides entirely on its surface.
3. The electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the conductor’s
surface.
4. On an irregular shaped conductor, the charge density is greatest at sharp points.
Explanations
1. If there were an electric field inside the conductor, the free charges would move and a current
would be created  no longer electrostatic equilibrium.
2. This property is a direct result of the repulsion between like charges. The repulsive forces
between the charges force them as far apart as possible, i.e. to the surface.
3. See Fig. 1.12. If we have a component of the electric field parallel to the surface (Ex), the
charges will move in this field and we would have a current  no longer electrostatic
equilibrium.
Fig. 1.12
4. To see why property 4 must be true consider Fig. 1.13, where the excess charge of the object
has moved to the surface. In a) the object is flatter and the repulsive forces have a large
component parallel to the surface. Therefore the charges will move away from each other until
other particles repel and create equilibrium. In b) the object is sharper and the repulsive forces
have a smaller parallel component. Hence the charges have a smaller tendency to move apart.

Fig. 1.13
Example 1: Three charges are placed on three corners of a square, as shown in the figure below.
Each side of the square is . Compute at the fourth corner?
 Answer 1: The contributions of the three charges to the field at the vacant corner are as
indicated. Notice in particular their directions.
Their magnitudes are given by:
From the diagram, the resultant have the components:
Hence,

And with or
with
Example 2: Compute (a) the electric field in air at a distance of from a point charge
, (b) the force on a charge placed from ?
 Answer 2:
(a) directed outward from .
(b) directed outward from
Example 3: The tiny ball at the end of the thread shown in the figure below has a mass of
and is in a horizontal electric field of strength . It is in equilibrium in the position
shown. What are the magnitude and sign of the charge on the ball?
 Answer 3: Given data: , ,

and
 As the mass is attracted to the left by the electric field directed to the right, then
the field lines are inward to the mass, hence this one should be negatively
charged.
 Again, if the system is at equilibrium, the coulomb`s force on the mass must act
against the tension in the thread due to the weight of the mass. Then:
By dividing the by the , we get that:

Hence,
Exercises:
1. What is the magnitude of the electric field strength such that an electron placed in the
field would experience an electrical force equal to the weight of that electron?
Answer:
2. For the situation shown in the figure below, find (a) the electric field at point , (b) the
force on a charge placed at , and (c) where in the region the electric
field would be zero (in absence of the charge). Answer: (a)
directed toward the right; (b) directed towards the left; (c) at
2.4. ELECTRIC FLUX
Fig. 1.14
Electric flux is represented by the number of electric field lines penetrating a surface. Consider
an electric field that is uniform in both magnitude and direction. The electric field lines penetrate
a surface area A, which is perpendicular to the field, as shown in Fig. 1.14. Recall that the
number of lines per unit area is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field.
Therefore, the number of lines penetrating the surface is proportional to the product EA. The
product EA is called the electric flux,.

  EA
The electric flux has the units of Nm2/C in SI units.
If the surface under consideration is not perpendicular to the field, the flux through it must be
less. Then we must take the projection of the surface A onto a surface perpendicular to E.
Here we introduce the concept of a vector area A , a vector quantity with magnitude A and a
direction perpendicular to the area we are describing (see Fig. 1.15).
Fig. 1.15
We generalize our definition of electric flux for a uniform field to:
  EAcos
E cos is the component of the vector E perpendicular to the area (and parallel to the vector area
A ). We can write:
  EA
If the field is not uniform or the surface is curved, we divide the area A into small elements d A ,
calculate the flux through each one and integrate the result to obtain the total flux.
   E cosdA   E  d A (Eq. 1.4)
We call this integral the surface integral of the component E over the area.
2.4.1. Gauss’ Law

Gauss’ law is an alternative to Coulomb’s law for expressing the relationship between electric
charge and electric field.
Gauss’ law states that the total electric flux out of any closed surface is proportional to the
total electric charge inside the surface.
We start with a field of a single positive charge:

1 q
E
4 0 r 2
We place the charge at the centre of an imaginary spherical surface with radius R. At each point
on the surface, E is perpendicular to the surface, and its magnitude is the same at every point.
The total electric flux is just the product of the field E and the total area A=4R2.
1 q q
  EA  (4R 2 ) 
4 0 R 2
0
The flux is independent of the radius R of the sphere. It depends only on the charge enclosed by
the sphere.
We extend to a nonspherical surface:
Consider an irregular surface. We can divide the entire surface into elements dA and compute the
electric flux E dA cos for each. We sum the results by integrating. Each of these area elements
can be projected onto a corresponding element on a sphere. Thus the total electric flux through
the irregular surface must be the same as the total flux through the sphere, which is equal to q/0.
q
  EdA
0
This equation holds for any shape of surface, provided that it is a closed surface enclosing the
charge q. The symbol  means that the integral is always taken over a closed surface. For a
closed surface enclosing no charge, as in Fig. 1.16, we get:
Fig. 1.16
Every electric field line from an external charge that enters any closed surface at one point leaves
at another. Field lines can begin or end inside a region of space only when there is charge in that
region. Suppose the surface encloses several charges, q1, q2, q3, etc. The total electric field E at
any point is the vector sum of the electric fields of the individual charges. Let Qencl be the total
charges enclosed by the surface: Qencl= q1+ q2+ q3+… and E be the total field at dA.

We obtain the general statement of Gauss’s law:
Qencl
  EdA (Eq. 1.5)
0
Or in the equivalent forms:
   E cosdA  E dA  E  d A 
q i

Qencl
(Eq. 1.6)
0 0

Example 1: In the figure below a butterfly net is in a uniform electric field of magnitude
E =3 mN/C. the rim of radius a= 11 cm, is aligned perpendicular to the field. If the net contains
no net charge, find the electric flux through the netting
 Answer 1: Electric flux:
Example 2: The electric field at one face of a parallelepiped is uniform over the entire face
and is directed out of the face. At the opposite face, the electric field is also uniform over the
entire face and is directed into that face as shown in the figure below. The two faces on the

parallelepiped figure are inclined at from the horizontal, while and are both
horizontal; and .
i. Is the parallelepiped box charged, if yes, how?
ii. Find the size of its charge

, and
i. In reference to the given figure, but , then
and
By applying the Gauss` law: , where
ii. We know that , then

Hence,

Hence,
So,
By applying the Gauss` law:
Hence,
Example 3: Two point charges and are located along the
at and respectively. What is the magnitude of electric flux due to
this point charge through a spherical surface centered at the origin and with radius and
?
 Answer 3: Data: , , and

By applying Gauss` law, within any closed surface:
i. With ,
ii. With
Then,
Example 4: A uniformly charged conducting sphere of diameter has a surface charge

density of . What is the total electric flux leaving the surface of the sphere?
 Given data: , and
As
Then,
Exercises 1: A disk with radius is oriented with its normal unit vector at an angle of
to a uniform electric field with magnitude as shown in the figure below.
a) What is the electric flux through the disk? Answer a):
b) What is the flux through the disk if it is turned so that its normal is perpendicular to ?
Answer b):
c) What is the flux through the disk if its normal parallel to ?
Answer b):
2.4.2. Applications of Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law is valid for any distribution of charges and any surface. In practical problems it is
useful only when the system has symmetry properties that can be used to evaluate the flux
integrals. We can use it either to find the field, if we know the charge distribution, or to find the
charge distribution if we know the field.
Problem solving strategy
1. Select the surface (Gaussian surface) that you are going to apply Gauss’s law on. The
surface does not have to be a physical one, such as a surface or solid body - it is often
imaginary.
2. The Gaussian surface and the charge distribution must have some symmetry property so
that it is possible to evaluate the flux integral.
3. Often the closed Gaussian surface will be made up of several separate areas. The integral
 E  d A over the entire closed surface is always equal to the sum of the integrals of all
the separate areas.
4. If E is perpendicular to a surface A at every point*, and also had the same magnitude,
then  E  d A is equal to EA.
5. If E is tangent to a surface at every point*, then  E  d A is equal to 0.
* Note the difference between the surfaces A and the surface vector A . When E is perpendicular
to a surface A, it is parallel to the surface vector A and vice versa.
2.4.3. Charges on conductors

We have seen earlier, that when there is no net motion of charge in a conductor, the electric field
at every point within a conductor is zero and that the charge of a conductor is located entirely on
its surface. We will now look at the case where we have a cavity inside the conductor as in Fig.
1.17.

Fig. 1.17
a) If we have no charge in the cavity we can use a Gaussian surface to show that the net charge
on the cavity surface must be zero. E=0 everywhere on the Gaussian surface that is placed in the
middle of the conductor (otherwise we would have a net motion of charge and not have
electrostatic equilibrium). According to Gauss’s law the total charge within the Gaussian surface
must be zero. As we shrink our Gaussian surface we see that the charge on the cavity surface
must be zero.
b) Suppose we place a small body with charge +6q inside the cavity. Again E=0 everywhere on
the Gaussian surface placed in the conductor, so according to Gauss’s law the total charge within
the Gaussian surface must be zero. As we shrink our Gaussian surface we see that to make the
total charge zero we must have a negative charge –6q located at the inner cavity surface.
Remember, in the interior of the material there are no electric fields, the positive charge from the
enclosed charge is cancelled by the negative charge on the surface surrounding it. Since we have
increased the amount of negative charges on the inner surface and the sum of the charges is the
same we must increase the positive charges on the surface with the same amount.
Electrostatic shielding – Faraday’s cage
Fig. 1.18
In Fig. 1.18 we have a conducting box in an external electric field, . The electric field
redistributes the free electrons in the conductor.
This charge distribution causes an additional electric field, so that the total field
at every point inside the box is zero. The charge distribution alters the shape of the
field lines near the box. This set up is called a Faraday cage. It is useful when one wants to
protect sensitive equipment from stray fields that might affect measurements, and can also
protect against dangerous electric discharge. Examples of this are: measuring equipment
surrounded by aluminium foil or copper; and in a thunderstorm a car can act as a Faraday cage
and protect from dangerous electric discharge

2.5. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
A charge in an electric field experiences a force and it moves, work will be in general be done.
If a positive charge is moved from A to B in a direction opposite to that of the E, an external

agent has to do work against the force of the field and energy has to be supplied. As a result the
system ( of charge in field gains an amount of electrical potential energy equal to the work done.
This analogous to an object raised against earth’s gravitation field.
B + B +
A + A +
E g
Electrical P.E greater at B Gravitational P.E. greater at B

than at A than at A.
In general, the P.E associated with a charge at a point in an electric field depends on the location
of the point and the magnitude of charge ( since the force depends on the location of point and
the magnitude of charge I.e F = QE)
A unit charge is chosen is chosen and the change in potential energy which occurs when such a
charge is moved from one point to another is called the change in potential of the field itself.
A potential at a point in a field is defined as the work done per unit positive charge moving from
infinity to the point.
Potential is the property of a point in a field and is a scalar since it deals with a quantity of work
done or potential energy per unit charge. Symbol for potential energy is V, and its unit is Volt or
joule per coulomb (JC-1) .

2.5.1. Equipotentials
All points in a field which have the same potential can be imagined as lying on surface called
equipotential surface. No energy change for a charge moving in a such a surface, no work done
on it.
Field lines
equipotentials
A positive point charge
Potential due to a point charge
We wish to find the potential at a point A in the field of +Q, and distance r from an isolated point
charge +Q situated at O in a medium of permittivity .
+Q A
B C
. .
Imagine a very small point charge +Qo is moved by an external agent from C, distance x from A,
through a very small distance to B without affecting the field due to +Q.
Work done by external agent (
By applying the coulomb’s law

Total work done W in bringing Qo from to A is
The potential V at A is the work done per unit positive charge brought from infinity to A.
Hence
Potential due to a conductivity sphere
If the sphere has radius a, then the potential at its surface is.
+Q +
Q
E= V=
Variation of E with r Variation of V with r V V=
E=0 r
r
2.5.2. Potential difference
The potential difference between two point s is the work done per unit charge passing from one
point to another.
The symbol is V and the units are J c-1 or volt. If is the P.d. between two points in an electric
field, the energy change occurring when a charge moves through the P.d is given by

Example 1: Four point charges are placed along a horizontal plane as shown in the figure
bellow. Consider that and , find the net electric potential at the
center point mentioned on the figure?

and
The net electric potential at the centre point can be calculated as:
and
Hence,
Example 2: In reference to the figure below, the charge at is , while the charge at
is (Given ).
i. Find the net absolute electric potentials due to these charges at points and
respectively?
ii. How much work must be done to transfer a charge of from the point
to point ?
 Answer 1: Given data: ; ; ;

; and
i.
 The net absolute electric potential at can be calculated as:

Hence,
 The net absolute electric potential at can be calculated as:
Hence,
ii. The work done is given by the equation:
Then,
Example 3: An electron starts from rest and falls through a potential rise of . What is its
final speed?
 Answer 3: Given data: , , ,
We know that
Again, , where
Hence,
Exercises 1: Four point charges are placed at the four corners of a square that is on each
side. Find the potential at the centre of the square if:
a) The four charges are each ? Answer a):
b) Two of the four charges are and two are ? Answer b):
2.5.3. Relationship between E and V
Consider a charge +Q at a point A in an electric field where the field strength is E. the
force F on Q is given by
O A B
E

If q moves a very short distance from A to B in the direction of E. the work done by the
electric field on Q is.
If the p.d. between B and A is , We can write it by definition as:
Negative inserted to show that if displacement in the direction of E are taken to be positive,
then when is positive, is negative, that is potential decreases or if charge moves opposite
of E is negative and is positive showing an increase in potential.
is called the potential gradient in the x direction and so the field strength at a point equals
the negative of potential gradient.
In a uniform field E is constant in magnitude and direction at all points, hence is constant.
The field near the centre of parallel metal plates is uniform and it is created by a p.d V between
the plates of separation d. then
Example 1: In the figure 1 below, a proton initially at rest is shot towards the point from .
Find:
i. The potential difference between the plates?
ii. Find its final velocity (just before striking point ) if the electric field is uniform?
 Answer 1: Given data: , , ,

and
i. We know that:

ii. Again, , where
Example 2: As shown in the figure below, a charged particle remains stationary at the centre of
a parallel plate capacitor. The plates separation distance is , and
for the particle. Find the potential difference between the plates?
 Answer 2: Since the particle is in equilibrium, the weight of the particle is equal
to the upward electric force
But for a parallel plate system,
Exercise 1: In the figure below, we show two large metal plates connected to a battery.
Assume the plates to be in vacuum and to be much larger than shown. (a) Electric field between
the plates, (b) the force experienced by an electron between the plates, (c) the lost by an
electron as it moves from plate to plate , and (d) the speed of the electron released from plate
just before striking plate ? Answer (a): ; (b) ;
(c) and (d)

2.6. CAPACITORS
2.6.0. Introduction
- A system of two conductors for holding charges is known as a capacitor, and its
capacity is defined as
Where q is the charge in one of the conductors, and V is the potential of this conductor with
respect to the earth. We take the potential of earth to be 0.
- Capacitance is related to the ability of an insulated conductor or a system of insulated

conductors, to hold electric charge.
- It is equal to the ratio of the charge placed on a conductor to the change in potential.
Consider spherical conductor at zero potential and place a charge q on it. Its potential
will rise to So its capacitor will be given;
- The symbol for a capacitor is
- If there are two equal and opposite charges at any two points and there is a potential
difference between these points, we say there exists a capacitance between these
points.
- From equation (2) the units of capacitance are coulomb/volt, which we call Farad
( and 1 picofarad
- Capacitors are applied in waveshaping circuits, ascillators, timing circuits etc.
2.6.1. TYPES OF CAPACITORS
2.6.1.1. Parallel plate capacitor

- This is the commonly used capacitor, it consists of two conducting plates parallel to
each other

d
A
-Distance d, between the plates is quite small as compared with the area A, so the infringing of
electric field at the boundaries can be neglected. Taking E to be constant throughout
-The p.d. between the plates is
So the capacitance of this system is given by
………………………………………… 3
From equation (3) the units of = volts/metre
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH DI-ELECTRIC
- Equation C= only holds for a parallel plate capacitor with its plates in a vacuum.
- When you fill the space in a capacitor with a di-electric e.g. mic or oil
- Then for a parallel plate capacitor
C=
Where L has dimensions of length, for a parallel plate L = A/d,
for a cylindrical capacitor L is =

2.6.1.2. Spherical capacitor
- Consider two conductors which are spheres like with radii a nd b
figure below. The outer conductor carries a charge of -q and the inner
+q.
- We draw a Gaussian surface of radius r.
q=
E=
V=
2.6.1.3. Cylindrical capacitor

- A cylindrical capacitor consists of two coaxial cylinders of radius a and b and length
L. We can find the capacitance by assuming the capacitance is very long so that
fringing lines of force at the ends can be ignored
Using Gauss law:

We have o where
The flux being entirely through the cylindrical surface which gives
E=

The p.d. between the places is given by:
V= = =
=
So capacitance
C= =
Which is similar to the relationship for parallel plate capacitors.

Example 1: What is the area of plate for a capacitor consisting of two parallel plates separated
by a layer of paraffin wax thick, if its capacitance is . The dielectric constant
for the wax is ?
 Answer 1: Given data: , , and
For a parallel plate capacitor, we know that:
Example 2: What should be the length of a cylindrical capacitor whose inner radius of and
outer radius of , so that it can hold a charge of , once connected to a ?

and
We know that:
Again, for a cylindrical capacitor:
Then,
Example 3: A cable of wire 3 x 10-3m in diameter and insulated with 3 x 10-3 of an insulator
(relative permittivity = 4.26) is placed in water. Calculate the capacity for 5km length of the
cable?
 Answer 3: = 4.26, 0 = 8.85 x 10-12 and
=1.5 x 10-3 m and 10-3+ 1.5 x 10-3 = 4.5 x 10-3m

Exercises 1. The parallel plates of an air filled capacitor are everywhere 1.0mm apart, what must
be the plate area be if the capacitance is to be 1.0farad? Answer 1:
Exercises 2. A parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of 100 , a plate of 100 cm2 and a mica
dielectric. At 50 volts p.d. Calculate:
a) The free charge on plates( Answer a):
b) Electric field in mica Answer b):
2.6.2. CONNECTION OF CAPACITORS

2.6.2.1. CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
C1
A B
- +
To find out the capacitance using relation
Let the charge be on , be on and be on respectively, therefore at the junction
A:
……. OR
As,
Finally, we have that:
Generally, for number of capacitors connected in parallel, their equivalence capacitance is
given by :
So, capacitors in parallel add up to give equivalent capacitance for their combination

2.6.2.2. Capacitors in series
A B
- Let the combination be put in a box and connected to a battery.

- Due to induction the plates to the –ve terminal will have negative charge (-q) and
those to the left terminal have post +q.
- Let , etc. be the p.d. across capacitor , etc respectively.
Using the relative equation : , we can get that:
let be the “ ” of this combination.
By simplifying within the above equation, we get that:
Finally, we can generalize the above equation for number of capacitors connected
in series as follows:

2.6.3. ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR
- When we charge a capacitor we transfer charge from one plate to the other.
- When a charge is transferred, a potential difference is built up between the plates
which is equal to . Now to add a further small charge to the upper plate, we
will do additional work.
Q/C
q/c
0 Q
In reference to the previous figure, we can write the relative equation to the addition work done
by the charge as:
Let consider the capacitor maximum stored charge as from the empty initial storage. If
, then we can integrate the above equation to find the maximum work done by those
charges:
Hence,
If is the final p.d. between the plates, then we can use the equation into the previous
equation can be rewritten as:
Hence,
N.B: Knowing the dimensions of a given parallel plate capacitor, the energy stored per its unit
volume is given by:
Where and , as also

Hence,
Where = electric energy density, = Electric field at a point in air
Example 1: Given that three identical capacitors of magnitude are

connected to a potential difference of as shown in the following figure. If the energy stored in
the capacitor is , what was the potential difference at the poles of the voltage
source?
 Answer 1: Given that: and

 As and , and . Then,
 Again, is in series with and , then
 Qt  2 2 E3C3  2  2  2 10 3 joules 10 10 6 F  4 10 4 C
Besides,
Qt 4 10 4 C
Finally, V   6
 0.6 10 2 volts  60V
Ceq (20 / 3) 10 F
Example 2: For the system of capacitors shown in the figure below, find the energy stored in the
capacitor if a related charge of was simultaneously stored in the
capacitor?

 Answer 2: Given data: , , , and
As and are in series, then , so:
Again, as the series connection of and are in parallel with that of and ,
then: and
Hence,
Exercise 1: Three identical capacitors are connected to a potential

difference V as shown in the figure 3 below. Calculate the energy stored in the
capacitor ? Answer:

Exercise 2: The series combination of two capacitors and shown on
the below figure is connected across . Compute the energy stored in both capacitors?
Answer:

Leaning Outcome III: EXAMINE EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
FLOW IN DC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
III.0. ELECTRIC CURENT
Electric current is the flow of electric charge. Electric current can consist of any moving
charged particles; most commonly these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes an
electric current. In metals, current is the movement of negative charge, i.e. electrons. In
gases and electrolytes both positive and negative charges may be involved.
Figure 1: Conventional direction of current.
III.1. DIRECT CURRENT
By historical convention, a positive electric current is defined as having the same direction of
flow as any positive charge it contains, or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to
the most negative part. Electric current defined in this manner is called conventional electric
current.
To define current quantitatively, suppose charges are moving perpendicular to a surface of

area A as shown in above Figure 1. (This area could be the cross-sectional area of a wire, for
example).
The current flowing through a conductor is defined as the rate of flow of charge through
any cross section of it.
If is the amount of charge that passes through this surface in a time interval ∆t , the
average current is equal to the charge that passes through A per unit time:
Unit of current ampere (A), 1 Ampere= Coulomb/second
If the rate at which charge flows varies in time, the current varies in time; we define the
instantaneous current I as the limit of the average current as ∆t → 0:

III.1.1. Microscopic model of current: Drift Velocity of electrons
Consider the current in a cylindrical conductor of cross-sectional area A (Figure 2).
The volume of a segment of the conductor of length (between the two circular cross sections
shown in Figure below) is . If n represents the number of mobile charge carriers per unit
volume (in other words, the charge carrier density), the number of carriers in the segment is
.
Therefore, the total charge in this segment is: where q is the charge
on each carrier.
Figure 2: A segment of a uniform conductor of cross-sectional area A.
- If charge passes through length in time with average drift velocity ,
or , therefore neA not nAq
In reality, the speed of the charge carriers is an average speed called the drift speed. To
understand the meaning of drift speed, consider a conductor in which the charge carriers are free
electrons.
 If the conductor is isolated, the potential difference across it is zero, the actual motion of
electrons along the conductor is quite slow; the electrons spend most of their time
bouncing around randomly, and have only a small velocity component (drift velocity )
opposite to the direction of the current.
 When a potential difference is applied across the conductor (for example, by means of a
battery), an electric field is set up in the conductor; this field exerts an electric force on
the electrons, producing a current.
 The energy transferred from the electrons to the metal atoms during collisions causes an
increase in the atom’s vibrational energy and a corresponding increase in the conductor’s
temperature.
 A closed path through which charge can flow, returning to its starting point, is called an
electric circuit.

III.1.2. Current Density (J)
- Consider a conductor of cross-sectional area A carrying a current I.

- The current density in the conductor is defined as the current per unit cross-section area
at right angle to the direction of flow.
This expression is valid only if the current density is uniform and only if the surface of cross-
sectional area A is perpendicular to the direction of the current.
Example 1: How many electrons flow through a light bulb each second if the current through the
light bulb is ?
 Answer 1: We know , the change flowing through the bulb in is
But the magnitude of the charge on each electron is . Therefore,
Example 2: To obtain a value for v consider a current of 1 Ampere in SWG28 copper wire of
cross-section area of 1.1 x 10-7m2. If we assume that each copper atom contributes one ‘free’
electron, it can be shown that electrons per m3. Then since e = 1.6 x 1019 coulomb.
 Answer 2:
Exercises:
1. An electron gun in a TV set shoots out a beam of electrons. The beam current is
. How many electrons strike the TV screen each second? How much charge
strikes the screen in a minute? Answer 1: ;
2. A small but measurable current of exists in a copper wire whose diameter
is 2.5 mm. the number of charge carriers per unit volume is . Assuming
the current is uniform; calculate the electron’s drift velocity? Answer 1:

III.2. RESISTORS
The resistor is a passive electrical component that creates resistance in the flow of electric
current.
Resistance (R) of a conductor is the opposition to the flow of current.
The unit of resistance is the
 Under normal circumstances, wires present some resistance to the motion of electrons.
 Fixed resistors are denoted by:
Resistance and Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional
to the voltage across the two points.
Where the coefficient of proportionality is the resistance (R)
Therefore,
 The resistance (R) of a wire or other object is a measure of the potential difference (V)
that must be impressed across the object to cause a current of one ampere to flow through
it.
 Voltage can be thought of as the pressure pushing charges along a conductor, while the
electrical resistance of a conductor is a measure of how difficult it is to push the charges
along.
Vector form of ohm’s law
The vector form of Ohm’s law is used in electromagnetism and material science.
A current density and an electric field are established in a conductor whenever a potential
difference is maintained across the conductor.
In some materials, the current density is proportional to the electric field:
Where the constant of proportionality σ is called the conductivity of the conductor and
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity.

Materials that obey the above equation are said to follow Ohm’s law. More specifically, Ohm’s
law states the following:
“For many materials (including most metals), the ratio of the current density to the electric field
is a constant σ that is independent of the electric field producing the current”.
Materials and devices that obey Ohm’s law and hence demonstrate this simple relationship
between E and J are said to be ohmic. Experimentally, however, it is found that not all materials
and devices have this property. Those that do not obey Ohm’s law are said to be non-ohmic.
V-I graph of ohmic conductors. V-I graph of non ohmic conductors.
Resistivity
The resistance property of a material is called resistivity. The electrical resistance of a resistor is
proportional to the resistivity of the material.
Figure 3: a segment of straight wire of uniform cross-sectional area A and length l.
We can obtain an equation useful in practical applications by considering a segment of straight

wire of uniform cross-sectional area A and length l, as shown in Figure 3. A potential difference
is maintained across the wire, creating in the wire an electric field and a current.
If the field is assumed to be uniform, the magnitude of the potential difference across the wire is
related to the field within the wire through the equation ,
Therefore, we can express the current density in the wire as:

Because J = I /A, the potential difference across the wire is:
The quantity is called the resistance of the conductor. We define the resistance as the
ratio of the potential difference across a conductor to the current in the conductor:
Most electric circuits use circuit elements called resistors to control the current in the various
parts of the circuit. As with capacitors, many resistors are built into integrated circuit chips, but
stand-alone resistors are still available and widely used. Two common types are the composition
resistor, which contains carbon, and the wire-wound resistor, which consists of a coil of wire.
The inverse of conductivity is resistivity ρ:
Where R is resistance (Ω), ρ is the resistivity of the resistor material (Ω·m), l is the length of the
conductor along direction of current flow (m), and A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to
current flow (m2).
Every ohmic material has a characteristic resistivity that depends on the properties of the
material and on temperature. In addition, as you can see from the previous equation, the
resistance of a sample of the material depends on the geometry of the sample as well as on the
resistivity of the material.
The resistance of a given cylindrical conductor such as a wire is proportional to its length and
inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. If the length of a wire is doubled, its resistance
doubles. If its cross-sectional area is doubled, its resistance decreases by one half.
Resistance also depends on temperature, usually increasing as the temperature increases the
resistance. For reasonably small changes in temperature, the change in resistivity, and therefore
the change in resistance, is proportional to the temperature change. This is reflected in the
following equations:

At low temperatures some materials, known as superconductors, have no resistance at all.
Ohm’s law Limitations
There are some limitations to Ohm’s law. They are as follows:
 Ohm’s law is an empirical law which is found true for maximum experiments but not for
all.
 Some materials are non-ohmic under a weak electric field.
 Ohm’s law holds true only for a conductor at a constant temperature. Resistivity changes
with temperature.
 Ohm’s law is not applicable to in-network circuits.
 Ohm’s does not apply directly to capacitor circuits and Inductor circuits.
 The V-I characteristics of diodes are much different.
III.2.1. Types of Resistors
The common types of resistors are:
a) Carbon composition resistors
- Is a fixed resistor made from mixture of carbon, clay and resin binder.
- Values of these resistors are shown by color markers.
- The tolerance colors are gold 5%, silver 10%, no color 20%

- An ideal fixed resistor provides a constant resistance under all environments. However,
the resistance of the practical resistors varies slightly with increase in temperature.
- A fixed resistor consists of two terminals. This two terminals are used to connect with the
other components in the electronic circuit.
Digit Color Multiplier Example 1: Using the color code, determine the resistance of
the resistor shown in figure 4 below
0 Black
1 Brown
2 Red Figure 4
3 Orange blue yellow red no color
4 Yellow  Answer 1: Using color code

Blue,yellow, red and no color
5 Green
6 Blue
7 Violet
8 Grey
9 White
b) Carbon film resistor
- Carbon film resistors are the most widely used resistors in the electronic circuits.
- The carbon film resistors are made by placing the carbon film on a ceramic substrate.
- The carbon film acts as the resistive element to the electric current and the ceramic
substrate acts as the insulating material to the electric current.
- The metallic end caps are fitted at both ends of the resistive element. The leads made of
copper are joined at two ends of these end caps.
- The carbon film resistors produce less noise than carbon
composition resistor.

c) Wire-wound resistor
The wire wound resistor is a type of passive component, which is made by winding the metal
wire around a metal core.
- The metal wire acts as the resistive element to the electric current. Hence, the metal wire
restricts the electric current to certain level.
- The metal core acts as the non-conductive material. Hence, it does not allow electric
current through it.
- The resistance of a wire increases with its length
- Copper, manganese, nickel wires are used for high
precision resistors.
d) Foil resistors
The metal foil resistor has the best precision and stability properties of all resistor types.
- The foil is made of an alloy of usually Nichrome with additives. It is mounted on a
ceramic carrier with high heat conductivity. The foil has a thickness of only several
micrometers. The desired resistance value is achieved by a photoetched resistive
pattern in the foil.
- Foil resistors produce low noise compared to the other types of resistors. These
resistors are also called high precision resistors.
- Foil resistors have low TCR (Temperature Co-efficient of Resistance.
The rate at which the resistance of the material changes with increase in temperature is
called TCR.
e) Variable resistors
The variable resistor is a resistor that controls (increase or decrease) the flow of electric
current when we vary or change its resistance. In other words, when we vary the
resistance of the variable resistor, the electric current flowing through
it will increase or decrease.
- Variable resistors are used for sound volume or other controls

- Variable resistor symbol:

Types of variable resistors:
1. Potentiometer
The potentiometer consists of three terminals among which two are fixed and one is
changeable.
The two fixed terminals of the potentiometer are connected to both ends of the resistive
element called track and third terminal is connected to the slider or sliding wiper. The
slider or wiper moving along the resistive track changes the resistance of the
potentiometer. The resistance of the potentiometer is changed when the wiper is
moved over the resistive path.
When we increase the resistance of the potentiometer, the electric current flowing
through the potentiometer will decrease. In the similar way, when we decrease the
resistance of the potentiometer, the electric current flowing through the
potentiometer will increase.
2. Rheostat
The word rheostat is derived from the Greek word “rheos” and “-statis” which means a
current controlling device or a stream controlling device. The construction of rheostat is
almost similar to the potentiometer. Like the potentiometer, the rheostat also consists of
three terminals. However, in rheostat we use only two terminals for performing the
operation.
The resistance of the rheostat depends on the length of the resistive element or track
through which the electric current is flowing. If we use the terminals A and B in the
rheostat (as shown in below figure), the minimum resistance is achieved when we move
the wiper close to the terminal A, because the length of the resistive path decreases. As a
result, only a small amount of electric current is blocked and large amount of electric
current is allowed.
In the similar way, the maximum resistance is achieved when we move the wiper close to
terminal C, because the length of the resistive path increases. As a result, a large amount
of electric current is blocked and only a small amount of electric current is allowed.

3. Thermistor
The word thermistor is derived from the combination of words: thermal and resistor. It is
a type of resistor whose resistance changes when the surrounding temperature changes.
Thermistors are of two types:
- Negative temperature co-efficient (NTC) thermistors and
- Positive temperature co-efficient (PTC) thermistors.
The resistance of the NTC thermistors decreases when the temperature increases
whereas the resistance of the PTC thermistors increases when the temperature
increases
4. Photoresistor
The word photoresistor is derived from the combination of words: photon and resistor.
When light energy is applied to the photoresistor, its resistance changes.
- The resistance of the photoresistor decreases when the intensity of applied light
increases.
- Photoresistors are also known as light dependent resistors, semiconductor
photoresistors, or photoconductors.
5. Humistor
The name humistor is derived from the combination of words: humidity and resistor.
Humistors are very sensitive to the humidity. The resistance of the humistor changes with
the slight change in the humidity of the surrounding air. Humistors are also known as
resistive humidity sensors or humidity sensitive resistors.
6. Force sensitive resistors
The name itself suggests that, the force sensitive resistors are very sensitive to the applied
force. When we apply force to the force sensitive resistor, its resistance changes rapidly.
Force sensitive resistors are also known as force sensors, pressure sensor, force-sensing
resistors, or FSR.
7. Magneto resistor
The resistance of the magneto resistor changes when the magnetic field is applied to it.
When the strength of the magnetic field applied to the magneto resistor is increased, the
resistance of the magneto resistor also increased.

Circuit elements symbols
An important part of analyzing any electric circuit is drawing a schematic circuit diagram.
Figure below shows the usual symbols used in circuit diagrams. We will use these symbols
extensively in this chapter and the next. We usually assume that the wires that connect the
various elements of the circuit have negligible resistance; Figure ?? includes two meters that are
used to measure the properties of circuits. Idealized meters do not disturb the circuit in which
they are connected. A voltmeter, measures the potential difference between its terminals; an
idealized voltmeter has infinitely large resistance and measures potential difference without
having any current diverted through it. An ammeter measures the current passing through it; an
idealized ammeter has zero resistance and has no potential difference between its terminals.
Because meters act as part of the circuit in which they are connected, these properties are
important to remember.
Figure 5: Symbols for Circuit Diagrams

III.2.2. NETWORK OF RESISTORS
A. Resistors In series
- Resistors are in series if some current passes each in turn. If the p.d. across all three
resistors is V and current is I.
- The combined resistance is V
I
Resistors in series
If V1, V2 and V3 are the p.ds across R1, R2 and R3 respectively then V = V1 + V2 + V3
By definition of resistance ,
Therefore , since V = IR
We have
B. Resistors in Parallel
- Here alternative routes are provided for the current. The current I splits into I 1, I2, I3
Therefore I = I1 + I2 + I3
In parallel connection, p.d. across each parallel branch is the same.
if is combined resistance, then
Therefore, , factoring V on the right

hand side and diving we get

Example 1: For the circuit shown in the figure below, find the current through the resistor?
 Answer 1: Given data: , , , ,

, , and
Computing for the equivalent resistance, we get:
 As , and are in parallel, then:
 Again, and are in series, then:
 Also, and are in parallel, then:
 At the end, , and are in series, then:
The main current in the circuit can be calculated as:
The potential drop across can also be calculated as;
Finally, the current through is calculated as:

Example 2: For the circuit below, determine the potential drop across the resistor ?
 Answer 2: Given data: , , , , ,

, and
As and are in series, then
, then
is in series with , then:
, then
At the end, is in series with and ; then
Then,
So,:
Hence,
Exercise 1: For the circuit shown in the figure below, find the magnitudes of the currents ,
and ? Answer 1: , and

III.3. Potential Divider
In electronics, a potential divider is a passive linear circuit that produces an output

voltage ( ) that is a fraction of its input voltage ( ).
- A potential divider provides a convenient way of getting a variable p.d. from a fixed p.d.
It consists of resistors in series. Resistors can be fixed or variable
V=input p.d
Then
Example 1: In the figure, the two fixed resistors, and are connected in
series across a p.d. if . The same current passes through each resistor, therefore
Hence and
- The p.ds appearing across the resistors are therefore in the ratio of their resistance i.e.
If the resistors are changed so that
And
Hence and

III.4. Shunt and Multiplier connections
A. Shunt connection
 It consists of conversion of a micro - ammeter into an ammeter.
- A shunt connection is made by a moving coil resistor and a shunt resistor in parallel.
For parallel connection, the voltage is constant.
Example: In physics laboratory there is no ammeter which can measure 1A, what shunt
resistance should be connected with a moving-coil meter which has a resistance of 1000 Ω
and gives a full scale deflection (fsd) when 100 A (0.0001 A) passes through it?
- This can be done by connecting a resistor of low voltage parallel to it. The resistor is
called a Shunt, and must be chosen such that a current of 0.0001 A passes through the
coil and the rest of the 1 A i.e. 0.9999 A passes through the shunt,
0.0001A
1A
0.999A
Connection of a shunt
- P.d. across the coil = p.d. across shunt
Therefore

Exercise 1: What shunt resistance should be connected with an ammeter having a resistance of
so that of the total current will pass through the ammeter? Answer 1:
B. Multiplier connection
 It consists of conversion of a micro-ammeter into a voltmeter

- It is made by a moving –coil resistor and a multiplier resistor in series.
For series connection, the current is constant.
- To convert a 1000Ω and f.s.d 100NA micro-ammeter to a voltmeter reading 0-1V, a

resistor of high volume is connected in series. The resistor is called multiplier.
1000Ω
0.0001A
1V
To obtain value of the multiplier, we apply ohm’s law. The p.d. across multiplier and meter in
series = 0.0001A (M + 1000Ω). But the meter is to give f.s.d. when a p.d. across it and
multiplier in series is 1V.
Therefore
Therefore
Exercise 1: As an engineering student, your laboratory has no Voltmeter of full scale deflection
of which you need, but you have a moving coil micro ammeter which has a resistance of
and gives a full scale deflection of . Calculate the value of resistance multiplier
you would use to connect it? Answer 1:

III.5. Electromotive force ( ) and Internal resistance (
Figure: (a) Circuit diagram of a source of emf E (in this case, a battery), of internal
resistance r, connected to an external resistor of resistance R. (b) Graphical representation
showing how the electric potential changes as the circuit in (a) is traversed clockwise.
- The electromotive force E, of a source (a battery, generator etc) is the energy (chemical,
mechanical etc.) converted into electrical energy when unit charge passes through it.
- Unit of e.m.f. is volt and equals the emf of a source which changes 1 joule of chemical,
mechanical or other form of energy when a unit charge passes through it e.g. a car battery
with e.m.f of 12 volts supplies 12 joules per coulomb passing through it.
- A power generator with an e.m.f. of 25,000 volts is a much greater source of energy and
supplies 25,000 joules per coulomb. 2 coulombs would receive 50,000 joules.
- In general a charge Q passes through a source of emf E (volts) the electrical energy
supplied W is
NB: e.m.f. applies to a source supplying electrical energy, p.d. refers to the conversion of
electrical energy in a circuit.
- Both e.m.f. and p.d. are often called voltage.
- A high-resistance voltmeter connected across a cell on open circuit records its e.m.f (E).
If the cell is connected to an external circuit with resistor R and maintains a current I.
The voltmeter reading falls to V. V is the p.d. across R.

- is less than , then not all the energy supplied per coulomb by the cell(i.e ) is
changed to other form of energy. What has happened to the “lost” energy per coulomb.
The deficiency is due to the cell itself having resistance.
Because a real battery is made of matter, there is resistance to the flow of charge within
the battery. This resistance is called internal resistance r. For an idealized battery with
zero internal resistance, the potential difference across the battery (called its terminal
voltage) equals its emf. For a real battery, however, the terminal voltage is not equal to
the emf for a battery in a circuit in which there is a current.
- A certain amount of energy per coulomb is wasted in getting through the cell, and so less
is available for the external circuit. The resistance of the cell is called the internal or
source resistance.
Energy supplied = Energy charged per coulomb + Energy wasted per

Per coulomb by cell by external circuit coulomb in internal
Resistance of the cell
= V +
Produced volts useful volts lost volts
and and
Example 1: A high resistance voltmeter reads when connected across a dry battery on
open circuit and once the battery is connected in a closed circuit through a lamp of
resistance R by generating a current of . What is a) the of the battery b) the
internal resistance of the battery and c) the value of .
 Answer 1:
a) P.d. of open circuit

b)
c) From

III.6. Electric power and heating effect
- The power of a device is the rate at which it converts energy from one form to another
- If p.d. across a device is V and current I, the electrical energy is converted by it in time t
is
The power of the device is
- The unit of power is watt (w) and equals to 1 joule per second. IW = 1Js-1
and 1 Kilowatt equals 1000watt

V
Consider figure below:
or (called Joule’s effect)
Example 1: An immersion electric heater used in the lab will increase the temperature of
of water by in when operated with a supply. What current does it
draw?
, and
We know that:
Again,
Then,

Example 2: In the circuit shown in the figure below, of thermal energy are produced
each second in the resistor. Assuming the ammeter and two voltmeters to be ideal, what
will be their readings?
 Answer 2:
Given data: , , , , and
From the equation:
 Then, the reading of 1st voltmeter is:
 Also, the reading of the ammeter is:
 Hence, the reading of the 2nd voltmeter is:
Exercise 1: In reference to the circuit shown on the figure below, calculate the power
consumption of the resistor ? Answer 1:

III.7. KIRCHOFF’S RULES: Junction rule and loop rule
Many circuits can be analysed by using ohm’s law, rules for parallel and series connection of
resistors/generators. However, there are more complex circuits that can not be reduced to a single
equivalent resistor or generator.
A complex circuit is simplified by the use of 2 rules called Kirchhoff’s rules
a) Kirchhoff’s First rule (Junction rule)
It states that at a junction in a circuit, the current arriving equals the current leaving
OR
If the incoming currents to a junction are assigned a positive sign and those leaving a
negative sign, the algebraic sum of current meeting at a point is zero.
Junction rule is a consequence of conservation of charge
OR hence,
b) Kirchoff’s second rule (loop rule)
It states that round any closed circuit or loop, the algebraic sum of e.m.f, E is equal to
the algebraic sum of the products of current I and resistance R.
If we adopt a sign conventions:
(i) is positive if we pass from the positive terminal of the power supply
round the rest of circuit to the negative terminal and negative for opposite
scenario.

(ii) IR products are positive when there is a rise of potential and negative when there
is a drop of potential. Consider the figure below for a clockwise journey.
Therefore
The law is the conservation of energy using electrical quantities.
Example 1: In the following figure, find , and if the switch is (a) opened and (b) closed?

 Answer 1:
(a) When is open, , because no current can flow through the open switch.
Applying the node rule to point gives: or
Applying the loop rule to loop gives
To understand the use of signs, remember that current always flows from high to low
potential through a resistor.
Because , the previous first equation or
Notice that this is the same result that one would obtain by replacing the batteries by a
single battery.
(b) With closed, is no longer known to be zero. Applying the node rule to point gives
.
Applying the loop rule to loop gives
And to loop gives
Applying the loop rule to the remaining loop, , would yield a redundant equation,
because it would contain no new voltage change. We must now solve the system of
equations as:
Using the substitution method, we get:
Then,
Again,
Finally,

Example 2: In reference to the figure below, calculate the magnitudes of currents , and ?
 Answer 2: Applying the node rule to any junction point gives .
Applying the loop rule to the left loop gives

And to the right loop gives
Now, solving the system of the equations:
Using the substitution method, we get that:
Then, ,
Again,
Finally,

Exercise 1: For the network shown in the figure below, determine (a) the three currents , ,
, and (b) the voltages of the three batteries? Answer 1: , , ; (b)
, ,
Exercise 2: Find , and that flow within the circuit below, in reference to their indicated
directions? Answer 2: , ,
Electrical instruments for measurement
The ammeter
A device that measures current is called an ammeter (Figure 6). a multimeter (Figure 8) can also
be used.
The current to be measured must pass directly through the ammeter, so the ammeter must be
connected in series with other elements in the circuit, as shown in Figure 20. When using an
ammeter to measure direct currents, you must be sure to connect it so that current enters the
instrument at the positive terminal and exits at the negative terminal.

Figure 6: Ammeter Figure 7: An ammeter connected in series with the
resistor and battery.
The current to be measured must pass directly through the ammeter, so the ammeter must
be connected in series with other elements in the circuit, as shown in Figure 7. When using
an ammeter to measure direct currents, you must be sure to connect it so that current
enters the instrument at the positive terminal and exits at the negative terminal.
Ideally, an ammeter should have zero resistance so that the current being measured is not altered.
Figure 8: Multmeter
The voltmeter
A device that measures potential difference is called a voltmeter (Figure 9). A multimeter
(Figure 10) can also be used.

Figure 9: Voltmeter Figure 10: voltmeter connected in parallel
with the resistor.
The potential difference between any two points in a circuit can be measured by attaching the
terminals of the voltmeter between these points without breaking the circuit.
The potential difference across resistor R2 is measured by connecting the voltmeter in parallel
with R2. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so that no current passes through it.
The Wheatstone bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by

balancing two legs of a bridge circuit.
This circuit consists of the unknown resistance Rx , three known resistances R1 , R2 , and R3
(where R1 is a calibrated variable resistor), a galvanometer, and a battery. The known resistor
R1 is varied until the galvanometer reading is zero that is, until there is no current from a to b.
Under this condition the bridge is said to be balanced. Because the electric potential at point a
must equal the potential at point b. when the bridge is balanced, the potential difference across

R1 must equal the potential difference across R2. Likewise, the potential difference across R3
must equal the potential difference across Rx .
And
Eg: The Wheatstone bridge shown in figure 5 below is used to measure resistance X. at balance,
the current through the galvanometer G is zero and resistances L, M and N are
respectively. Find the value X
The meter bridge
Metre Bridge is the simplest practical form of the Wheatstone bridge.
The position of D is adjusted until the galvanometer reading is zero that is, until there is no
current from B to D.
Since the wire is uniform resistance will be proportional to length, therefore:

Eg: The slide wire meter bridge shown in the figure below is balanced when the uniform slide
wire AB is divided as shown. Find the value of X?
The potentiometer
A potentiometer is a circuit that is used to measure an unknown emf Ex by comparison with a

known emf.
Circuit diagram for a potentiometer
Point d represents a sliding contact that is used to vary the resistance (and hence the potential
difference) between points a and d.
The other required components are a galvanometer, a battery of known emf E0 , and a battery of
unknown emf Ex . With the currents in the directions shown in above Figure, we see from
Kirchhoff ’s junction rule that the current in the resistor Rx is I − Ix where I is the current in the
left branch (through the battery of emf E0) and Ix is the current in the right branch. Kirchhoff’s
loop rule applied to loop abcda traversed clockwise gives:

Because current Ix passes through it, the galvanometer displays a nonzero reading. The sliding
contact at d is now adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero (indicating a balanced circuit and
that the potentiometer is another null-measurement device).
Under this condition, the current in the galvanometer is zero, and the potential difference
between a and d must equal the unknown emf Ex .
Next, the battery of unknown emf is replaced by a standard battery of known emf E s, and the
procedure is repeated. If Rs is the resistance between a and d when balance is achieved this time,
then
Where it is assumed that I remains the same, Thus
Eg: A potentiometer using cell C of emf 5V and internal resistance 0.2 ohms is connected to a
wire AB in the figure below. A standard cell C0 of a constant emf of 1.10 V gives a balance point
at 55 cm of the wire. When C0 is replaced by a cell of emf E, the balance point is obtained at 85
cm. What is the value of E?

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Leaning Outcome 2: DEMONSTRATE ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA

2.1. Electrostatic concepts in line with laws of static charges

 Electrostatics is the study of electric Charges at rest

2.1.1. Properties of electric charges

There are two kinds of charge, positive and negative.

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 1

B. Conservation of electric charge

C. Quantization of electric charge

Hence, , where is the number of protons or electrons in excess.

Example 1: What is the meaning of ?

 Answer 1: A charge of one positive coulomb means a body contains a charge of

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 2

 Answer 2: Given data: and

From the equation of the quantization property of electric charges,

Example 3: A dielectric material has a negative charge of electrons. What is

1. A pith has a charge of . (a) Does it contain an excess or a deficiency of

2.1.2. Electric classification of materials

Ex. Copper, silver, gold, iron, aluminium

Ex. Glass, rubber, plastic

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 3

C. Semiconductors – their electrical properties are intermediate between an insulator and a

Ex. Silicon and germanium

Often used in computers and calculators.

2.1.3. Electrification (Charging) methods

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 4

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 5

2.2. ELECTRIC FORCE

Coulomb’s law (Eq. 1.1)

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 6

Hence, , where and is known as electric

where is the gravitational constant

I.2.2. Principle of superposition

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 7

 Answer 1: Since , we have from Coulomb’s law that:

The electric force between the protons is

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 8

Consider and for the ball on the left, we obtain

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 9

Substituting in the first equation gives,

From the Coulomb`s law, as

The resultant force on the charge has components:

The resultant force makes an angle with – or

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 10

By resolving the above quadratic equation, we get that:

1. Charges of , , and are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle

3. In the figure below, is a small negatively charged sphere of with of mass.

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 11

2.3. ELECTRIC FIELD

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 12

This can also be written as:

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 13

2.3.1. Electric Field Lines

Rules for drawing electric field lines:

2.3.2. Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 15

1. The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 16

From the diagram, the resultant have the components:

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 17

(b) directed outward from

 Answer 3: Given data: , ,

By dividing the by the , we get that:

APPLIED PHYSICS I – ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT @ RCA Year 1 - 2023 18