CLASS - 12

CHAPTER - 1

ELECTRIC CHARGES
AND FIELDS
 CONTENTS

 Introduction
 Electric Charges
 Conductors and Insulators
 Charging by Induction
 Basic Properties of Electric Charge
 Coulomb’s Law
 Forces between Multiple Charges
 Electric Field
 Electric Field Lines
 Electric Flux
 Electric Dipole
 Dipole in a Uniform External Field
 Continuous Charge Distribution
 Gauss’s Law
 Application of Gauss’s Law
  Electrostatics

Electrostatics is the branch of Physics

which deals with the study forces, fields,
and potentials arising from static charges.
INTRODUCTION -ELECTROSTATICS

• The word electricity is derived from the

Greek word elektron which means amber.

• In 600 BC, the Greek philosopher Thales

of Miletus observed that when amber is
rubbed with wool it attracts light objects.
ACTIVITY USING COMB AND PAPER
BITS
ACTIVITY USING PLASTIC SCALE AND PAPER BITS
 Methods of charging

 
There are three methods:
a) Rubbing (charging by friction)
b) Charging by Conduction
c) Charging by Induction
Rubbing (charging by friction)
Rubbing (charging by friction)
 Rubbing (charging by friction)
When glass rod is rubbed with silk, glass
acquires positive charge and silk acquires
negative charge.

When plastic is rubbed with fur, plastic

acquires negative charge and fur acquires
positive charge.

Electricity developed on bodies, when two

suitable bodies rubbed with each other is
called frictional electricity or static electricity.
 Charging by friction
When we rub a glass rod with silk, some of
the electrons from the rod are transferred to
the silk cloth. Thus the rod gets positively
charged and the silk gets negatively charged.
Similarly, when we rub a plastic rod with fur,
some of the electrons from fur are transferred
to the plastic rod. Thus the fur gets positively
charged and the plastic rod gets negatively
charged.
 ELECTRON THEORY OF
ELECTRIFICATION
To electrify a neutral body, we need to add or
remove one kind of charge. When we say that a
body is charged, we always refer to this excess
charge or deficit of charge. In solids, some of
the electrons, being less tightly bound in the
atom, are the charges which are transferred
from one body to the other. A body can thus be
charged positively by losing some of its
electrons. Similarly, a body can be charged
negatively by gaining electrons.
a) It was observed that if two glass rods rubbed
with wool or silk cloth are brought close to
each other, they repel each other.
b) Similarly, two plastic rods rubbed with cat’s
fur repelled each other.
c) On the other hand, the plastic rod attracts the
glass rod.
• If a plastic rod rubbed with fur is made to touch two
small pith balls suspended by silk or nylon thread,
then the balls repel each other.
• A similar effect is found if the pith balls are touched
with a glass rod rubbed with silk .
• A pith ball touched with glass rod attracts another pith
ball touched with plastic rod.
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
each other.
Like charges repel while unlike charges
attract each other.
 ELECTROSCOPE
A simple apparatus to detect
charge on a body is the gold-leaf
electroscope. It consists of a
vertical metal rod housed in a
box, with two thin gold leaves
attached to its bottom end. When
a charged touches the metal knob
at the top of the rod, charge
flows on to the leaves and they
diverge. The degree of
divergence is an indicator of the
amount of charge.
ELECTROSCOPE
 Conductors and insulators

Some substances readily allow passage of electricity

through them, others do not. Those which allow
electricity to pass through them easily are called
conductors. They have electric charges (electrons) that
are comparatively free to move inside the material.
Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are
conductors. Most of the non-metals like glass,
porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood offer high resistance to
the passage of electricity through them. They are
called insulators.
Conductors and insulators
 Charging by conduction
When a charged body is brought in to
contact with an uncharged conductor,
charge flows from the charged body to the
uncharged body.
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + +
 Charging by Induction
I. Bring two metal spheres, A and B, supported on
insulating stands,in contact as shown in Fig.(a)

II. Bring a positively charged rod near one of the

spheres, say A. The free electrons in the
spheres are attracted towards the rod. This
leaves an excess of positive charge on the rear
surface of sphere B. The left surface of sphere
A, has an excess of negative charge and the
right surface of sphere B, has an excess of
positive charge.
The process is called induction of charge and
happens almost instantly. The accumulated
charges remain on the surface, as shown, till
the glass rod is held near the sphere.
iii) Separate the spheres by a small distance
while the glass rod is still held near sphere A,
as shown in Fig. (c). The two spheres are
found to be oppositely charged and attract
each other.

(iv) Remove the rod. The charges on spheres

rearrange themselves as shown in Fig. (d).

(v)Now, separate the spheres quite apart.

The charges on them get uniformly
distributed over them, as shown in Fig. (e).

In this process, the metal spheres will each

be equal and oppositely charged. This is
charging by induction.
How can you charge a metal sphere positively without
touching it?
Figure (a) shows an uncharged metallic sphere on an
insulating metal stand.
 Bring a negatively charged rod close to the
metallic sphere, as shown in Fig.(b).
As the rod is brought close to the sphere, the free
electrons in the sphere move away due to repulsion
and start piling up at the farther end. The near end
becomes positively charged due to deficit of
electrons.
 Connect the sphere to the ground by a
conducting wire. The electrons will flow to the
ground while the positive charges at the near end
will remain held there due to the attractive force of
the negative charges on the rod, as shown in Fig.(c).
 Disconnect the sphere from the ground. The
positive charge continues to be held at the near end
[Fig. (d)].
 Remove the electrified rod. The positive charge
will spread uniformly over the sphere as shown in
Fig.(e).
Charging by Induction
Charging by Induction
BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

Additivity of charges
The total charge of an isolated system is
equal to an algebraic sum of individual
charges of the system.
For example, the total charge of a system
containing five charges +1, +2, –3, +4 and
– 5,in some arbitrary unit, is
(+1) + (+2) + (–3) + (+4) + (–5) = –1 in the
same unit.
Conservation of charge
The total charge of an isolated system is
always conserved that means charge can
neither be created nor be destroyed but can
be transferred from one body to another.

When bodies are charged by rubbing, there

is transfer of electrons from one body to the
other; no new charges are either created or
destroyed.
 Quantisation of charge
Any charged body has a total charge ± ne where
‘n` is an integer (n =0,1,2,3………..). This
experimental fact is called quantization of charge.
  q = ± ne, where n is an integer
and e = 1.6 × 10 -19 C
By convention, the charge on an electron is taken
to be negative; therefore charge on an electron is
written as –e and that on a proton as +e.
The SI unit of charge is Coulomb and is denoted
by the symbol C.
1𝞵C=10 -6C
How many electrons constitute one coulomb
of charge?
q = ne
q=1C e = 1.6 × 10 -19 C
n=6.25 x 1018 electrons
Why can one ignore quantisation of electric charge when
dealing with macroscopic i.e., large scale charges?

At the macroscopic level, one deals with charges that

are enormous compared to the magnitude of charge e. A
charge of magnitude, say 1 μC, contains something like
1013 times the electronic charge. At this scale, the fact that
charge can increase or decrease only in units of e. Thus,
at the macroscopic level, the quantisation of charge has
no practical consequence and can be ignored.
At the microscopic level, where the charges involved are
of the order of a few tens or hundreds of e, i.e.,they can
be counted and quantisation of charge cannot be ignored.
Charles Augustin de Coulomb
(1736 – 1806)
 COULOMB’S LAW
q1 q2

Fα
The force of attraction or repulsion between
two charges is directly proportional to product
of their charges and inversely proportional to
square of the distance between them.
 COULOMB’S LAW
Fα
F= k
k=
is called permittivity of air or free space.
(absolute permittivity)
F=

Value of = 8.85x10 -12

 = 9x109
F=

F = 9x109
If the charges are placed in a medium of
permittivity 𝟄
F=
 Relative permittivity Or Dielectric constant
( K Or 𝟄r)

It is the ratio of permittivity of a medium to

the permittivity of free space.
𝟄r =
𝟄= 𝟄0 𝟄r
F=
F= OR F=
1.How does the force between two charges change if the
a) distance is doubled?
b) distance is halved?
c) dielectric constant of the medium is increased?
d) charges are immersed in water (K=81)?
2.The force between two charges placed in air at a
distance r apart is F. What must be the distance between
two charges so that the force become
e) 3F
f) F/3
3.What is the force between two small charged spheres
having charges of 2x10-7C and 3x 10-7C placed 30cm apart
in the air?
a) F=
3F=
Ans:r1= r/

b) F=
F/3=
Ans:r2= r
 UNIT OF CHARGE- COULOMB
F=

F = 9x109
If q1=q2= 1C and r=1m
F = 9x109 N
1 Coulomb is that charge when placed in air
or vacuum at a distance of 1m from an equal
and similar charge experiences a force of
9x109 N.
 Question

 Identify the given ratio ke2/G memp as

dimensionless quantity or not. From the table of
Physical Constants determine the value of this
ratio. Also, mention the signification of the ratio.
ke2/G memp

=
= 1 (dimensionless)
 Coulomb’s law in vector form
q1 r q2

Force on q2 due to q1, =

is the unit vector pointing from q1 to q2
=

=
 q1 r q2

Force on q1 due to q2, =

is the unit vector pointing from q2 to q1
=

=-

=-

ie Coulomb’s law obey Newton’s third law

 Force between multiple charges
(Principle of superposition)

q1 F 43

F 42
q2 q4
𝐹 41

q3
= +
 Principle of superposition
=

=+

In case of n charges
= +………………….
 Principle of superposition
Total force on any charge due to number of
charges is the vector sum of all the forces due to
the other charges.
What is the force acting on a charge Q placed at
the centroid of the triangle?

F1 = F2 = F3 = F

R =

R = Net force acting

R = on the charge at
the centroid of
R = the triangle is
R =F zero
 Four point charges qA = 2 μC, qB = –5 μC, qC = 2 μC, and qD = –5 μC
are located at the corners of a square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the
force on a charge of 1 μC placed at the centre of the square?

The repulsive force between

the charges at A and at the
centre O is same in magnitude
with the repulsive force by the
corner C to the centre O, but
these forces are opposite in
direction. Hence, these forces
will cancel each other.
Similarly attractive force
between charges at D and O is
cancelled by the attractive
force between the charges at
B and O. Therefore, the net
force on 1 μC at the centre is
zero..
 ELECTRIC FIELD

The electric field is defined as the region or

space around a charge where an electric force
of attraction or repulsion can be experienced.
 Electric field Intensity
Consider a charge Q placed in vacuum. If we place
another point charge q at a point P, then the charge Q
will exert a force on q as per Coulomb’s law. P
q
Let be the force experienced
by the charge q.
q
Force experienced by unit charge ,

=
The electric field or field intensity at a point is defined as
the force experienced by unit positive charge placed at
that point. F
E=lim
𝑞→ 𝑜 q
 Significance of is that the test charge q
should be negligibly small so that the source
charge Q remain at its original position.
Unit Electric field Intensity is N/C
or
V/m

Electric field Intensity is a vector quantity.

The force acting on the charge q is

=q
 Electric field intensity due to a point charge
+q r P E
+1
Consider a point P at a distance r from a point
charge +q.

Electric field intensity at the point P,

E=
Electric dipole and Electric Dipole moment

-q 2a +q+
-

An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges q

and –q, separated by a short distance 2a.

Electric Dipole moment is the product of one of the charges and

distance between them.

=q
The unit of electric dipole moment is coulomb –meter (C-m)

Electric dipole moment is a vector quantity and by convention, its

direction is from –q to +q.
A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10–7 C and qB = –2.5 × 10–7 C
located at points A: (0, 0, –15 cm) and B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively.
What are the total charge and electric dipole moment of the system?
Total charge
= 2.5 × 10–7 C –2.5 × 10–7 C
=0
q = 2.5 × 10–7 C
2a = 15Cm + 15Cm = 30Cm
= 0.3 m
p =2a q
p =0.3 x 2.5 × 10–7
p =7.5 × 10–8 Cm
 Electric field of a dipole (On axial line)
x
A o B E 2 P E1
-q 2a +q +1
Consider a dipole of charge q and length 2a. Let P be a
point at a distance x from the centre of the electric dipole.
Electric field intensity at the point P due to the charge +q ,
E1= along BP

Electric field intensity at the point P due to the charge -q ,

E2= along PA
The total electric field at P due to the dipole is
E = E1- E2
E=-
E= (-)
E = ()
E= a<<x (a2 can be neglected)
E=
E= E=
E= =
 Electric field of a dipole (On equatorial line )

The electric field at P due to the

charge +q, E1 Cos𝞱 �
E2 Cos𝞱 �

E1= along BP
�

r x rr
E1 Can be resolved into two � �
components E1 Cos𝞱 and E1 Sin𝞱. � �
The electric field at P due to the
charge -q,
E2= along PA

E2 Can also be resolved into two E1 Cos𝞱 �

�
E2 Cos𝞱
components E2 Cos𝞱 and E2 Sin𝞱. �

Here Sin𝞱 components are equal r x rr

and opposite, therefore they cancel
� �
out. But Cos𝞱 components are in � �
the same direction, they can be
added up.
The total electric field at P due
to the dipole,
E = E1 Cos𝞱 + E2 Cos𝞱

E = Cos𝞱 + Cos𝞱
E1 Cos𝞱
E = 2 Cos𝞱 E2 Cos𝞱
�
�
�
Cos𝞱= a/r
E=2
r x rr
E=
E= 2aq=p �
�
a �
�

E = if a is very small r ≃ x
E=
Torque acting on a dipole in an electric field

+q
B +qE

2a �
� E

A � N
- qE �
-q

Consider a dipole of charge q and length 2a placed in a

uniform electric field makes an angle 𝞱 with the direction of the
electric field.
 Torque acting on a dipole in an electric field
The charges +q and –q experience
forces + qE and –qE respectively.
These two equal and unlike forces
+
constitute a couple.
Torque(τ) = force x Perpendicular
distance 2a

2aSin𝞱
τ = qE x BN
Sin𝞱=
BN= 2a Sin𝞱
τ = qE x 2a Sin𝞱
τ = 2aqE Sin𝞱
2aq=p The net force acting on
τ = PE Sin𝞱 the dipole + qE- qE = 0
= X
Torque is perpendicular toand
Draw the orientations of a dipole in an electric field corresponding
to:
1) 𝞽 =0
2) 𝞽 = max
3) 𝞽 = max
Ans:
1) a. -q 2a +q
E Parallel

b. +q 2a -q
E Anti parallel
2) 𝞽 = max
+q

2a
E

-q

3) 𝞽 = max
+q
30o
E

-q
An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10–9 C m is aligned
at 30° with the direction of a uniform electric field of
magnitude 5 × 104 NC–1. Calculate the magnitude of the
torque acting on the dipole.
p = 4 × 10–9 C m
E = 5 × 104 NC–1
𝞱 = 30°
τ = PE Sin𝞱
τ = 4 × 10–9 X 5 × 104 Sin 30°
τ = 4 × 10–9 X 5 × 104 x
τ = 10–4 Nm.
Electric field lines
 Electric field lines
The electric field lines are imaginary lines
drawn in such a way that the tangent to
which at any point gives the direction of
the electric field at that point.
Electric field lines of a single positive Charge
Electric field lines of a single negative Charge
 The field lines of a single positive
charge and a single negative

The field lines of a single positive charge are radially

outward while those of a single negative charge are
radially inward.
Field lines around the system of two positive
charges
Field lines around the system of two positive charges
gives a different picture and describe the mutual
repulsion between them.
Field lines around a system of a positive
and negative charge  (Electric dipole)
Field lines around a system of a positive
and negative charge clearly shows the
mutual attraction between them.
Field lines around the system of two negative
charges
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES IN A UNIFORM
ELECTRIC FIELD
Uniform electric field
Electric field corresponding to a negative
charge is placed with in the vicinity of a
metal plate
 Properties of Electric field lines.

Electric field lines start from +ve charge and end in –ve
charge.
 Electric field lines do not form any closed loop.
 Electric field lines never intersect each other.
If two lines intersect at a point, it means that at the
point of intersection electric field can be two directions
and hence they never intersect each other.
 If the field lines are crowded, then the field is strong
and if the field lines are not crowded, then field is weak.
 The electric field lines are always normal to the
surface of the charge body.
 Electric field lines can be taken to be continuous
curves without any breaks.
Continuous Charge Distribution:
A system of closely spaced charges is said to form a
continuous charge distribution.

(i) Linear charge density

If the charge is distributed over a line then the distribution
is called ‘linear charge distribution’.
dq
++++++++++++
dl per unit length. Its SI
Linear charge density is the charge
unit is C / m.
dq or 𝒒
= 𝝀=
dl 𝒍
ii) Surface Charge Density ( σ ):
If the charge is distributed over a surface, then the
distribution is called ‘surface charge distribution’.

o
r
+++++++++++
+++++++++++
dq
+++++++++++
+++++++++++
++++
dS

Surface charge density is the charge per unit area.

Its SI unit is C / m2.

𝒒 𝑑𝑞
𝝈= 𝜎=
𝒔 𝑑𝑠
 (iii) Volume Charge Density ( ρ ):

If the charge is distributed over a volume, then the

distribution is called ‘volume charge distribution’.

dq

dV

Volume charge density is the charge per unit volume. Its

SI unit is C / m3.

or
 Electric flux (ϕ)
The electric flux is
defined as the measure
of total number of
electric field lines
passing normally
through a given surface.
If the surface is
perpendicular to the
field, then the flux
through an area ΔS is
Δϕ = E ΔS
 Electric flux (ϕ)
If the normal to the surface makes
an angle 𝞱 with the electric field ,
Flux through the surface
Δϕ = E ΔS Cos 𝞱
Δϕ = E . ΔS
Total Flux through a given surface
ϕ =𝞢 E . ΔS
OR
ϕ=E.S
�
�
Unit of electric flux is Nm2/C
 GAUSS’S LAW
Gauss‘s law state that the
total electric flux or total
number of field lines
passing through any
closed surface is equal to
times the charges enclosed
by the surface.
ϕ=
E.S=
The electric flux through the
surface = E . S
The electric field intensity at P
E=
Surface area of the spherical P
surface , S = 4𝞹r2
The electric flux through the
surface = E . S = x 4𝞹r2
ES=
ϕ=
ie Gauss’s Law
 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW
Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly
charged wire.
Consider an infinitely long thin straight
wire with uniform linear charge density
λ. Let P be a point at a distance r from
the straight wire. The electric field lines
are radially outward. To find the
𝞴
electric field intensity at P, imagine a
Gaussian surface of radius r and length
l. The electric flux through two flat
surfaces is zero because the electric
field lines are radially outward and the
area vector is purpendiculat to E
The electric flux through though the
curved surface,
E.S=
E S=
q = 𝞴l
�
S = 2𝞹rl �

E 2𝞹rl =
E=
=
where is the radial unit vector plane
normal to the wire.
Electric Flux
ϕ
=
ϕ=
Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell
(i) Field outside the shell
Consider a spherical shell of
radius R with uniform surface
charge density 𝞼. Let P be a
point at a distance r from the
center of the spherical shell.
Here the electric field lines are
radially outward. To find the
electric field intensity at P
imagine a Gaussian surface of
radius r.
Electric flux through the surface,
E.S=
E S=
q = 4𝞹R2𝞼
S = 4𝞹r2
E 4𝞹r2 =
E=

If the point is on the surface of the

charged spherical shell, r =R

E=
(ii)Field inside the shell

If the point P is inside the Shell,

the Gaussian surface is again a
sphere through P centred at O.
The flux through the Gaussian
surface,
E.S=
Here the charge enclosed by the
Gaussian surface is zero. (q = 0)
E.S=0
E =0
The electric field inside a
Charged spherical shell is zero.
Variation of electric field with distance
from the centre of the spherical shell

E =0
E=

E=
Field due to a uniformly charged infinite
plane sheet

�
�

ΔS

x x
 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite
plane sheet
Consider an infinite plane
sheet of charge with uniform
charge density 𝞼. To find
the electric field intensity at
P, imagine a Gaussian �
cylinder of cross sectional �
ΔS
area A normal to the plane
x x
of the sheet. Since the
electric field lines are
parallel to the curved
surface, the flux through this
surface is zero.
 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite
plane sheet
The flux through two flat
surfaces,
E.S=
E S=
S = 2ΔS
q =𝞼 ΔS �
E 2ΔS = �
ΔS
E =
x x
E =
E is independent of x
Electric field between two parallel plates

+ 𝞼 -𝞼

I II III

E = ⎻ (=0 E = (=0

E= (
Electric field
E= (
intensity between
E =
two parallel plates E
=
E =
Electric field between two parallel plates