ELEMENTS IN A CIRCUIT:

SAFETY PROTECTION:

o Most commonly used protection for the use of electricity:

- Fuses
- Circuit Breakers

o Selection is based on ampere ratings or capacity to handle the

flow of electrons.

o Thus we have 5 amp, 10amp, 15amp, etc…. Ratings

o They vary in shape and type of holders

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS:

DEFINITIONS:

1. Volts – the unit of measure for voltage. The measurement is by

the use of a voltmeter.

2. Ampere – a unit measure for current. The measurement is by

the use of an ammeter.

3. Resistance – a unit measure for the capacity to resist the flow of

current or electrons. The measurement is thru an ohmmeter.

4. Multi-meter (or volt-ohm-ampere meter) – a measuring instruments

incorporating all the unit of measures in electricity.

5. Watt-hour-meter – used to measure power consumed in a given

circuit.
 ADVANTAGES OF SERIES CIRCUIT CONNECTION

1. Economical in the sense that the same

amount of current is used by so many
devices in the circuit.
2. Different degrees of light intensity maybe
obtained by varying the connection.
3. There is less danger of overloading the
line.
 DISADVANTAGES OF SERIES CIRCUIT CONNECTION

1. When a device or appliances of different

capacities are connected together, they do not
give the same degree of performance.
2. When a device gets out of order, the whole
connection is put out of commission.
3. More wire is used because as more devices are
connected in series, the wire becomes longer.
4. Less power is obtained because devices so
connected give higher resistance and
consequently less current.
5. Not possible to control set of lights individually
 ELECTRICITY – BASIC PRINCIPLES
STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Matter - anything that occupies space and has weight.

Element - a substance that cannot be decomposed any further by chemical
action.
Compound - a combination of two or more elements.
Molecule - smallest particle that a compound can be reduced to before it breaks
down into its elements.
Atom - smallest part that an element can be reduced to and still keeping the
properties of the element.

Parts of an atom:

Name Charge Mass (kg.)

Proton Positive charge 1.672 x 10 -27
Electron Negative charge 9.107 x 10 -31

Neutron No charge 1.672 x 10 -27

The atomic structure of an atom:

Nucleus of an atom – center of the atom

- - it is where the protons and the
neutrons are located.
+
-
The electrons revolve around in orbits
or shells around the nucleus.

Orbital shells of an atom:

K-shell – first orbit

L-shell – second orbit
M-shell – third orbit
N-shell – fourth orbit
O-shell – fifth orbit
1. The energy added to a valence shell is distributed among the valence electrons. Thus for a given energy, the
more valence electrons, the less energy each will get.
2. If enough energy is added to an electron, the electron will move out from its orbit and move to the next higher
orbit. That is, if enough energy is added to a valence electron, the electron will move out from its atom and
becomes a free electron since there id no more higher orbit.

Classification of materials according to conductivity:

Conductor – has 3 or less valence electrons.

Semi-conductor – has exactly 4 valence electrons.
Insulator – has 5 or more valence electrons.

Element No. of No. of No. of Valence

Name electrons protons neutrons electron (s)
Copper 29 29 34 1
Aluminum 13 13 14 3
Germanium 32 32 41 4
Phosphorus 15 15 16 5
ELECTRIC CHARGE

A body is said to be charge, if it has either an excess or deficit of electrons from its normal values due to sharing.

Coulomb (C) – unit of electric charge which is equivalent to 6.25 x 10 electrons

18
or protons.
- named after the French physicist, Charles A. Coulomb (1736 – 1806).

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Potential – the capability of doing work.

Any charge has the capability of doing work of moving another charge either by attraction or repulsion.

Example: Assume 1 C of charge can moved 3 electrons.

- 6 electrons will be attracted by the + 2 C plat
a. - 3 electrons will be attracted by the + 1 C plat
+ 1C - + 2C
- - making a resultant motion of 3 electrons goin
- - towards the + 2 C plate.
-
b. - 1C
- + 1C

- 3 electrons will be attracted by the + 1 C plat

-
- 3 electrons will be attracted by the – 1 C plat
- making a resultant motion of 3 electrons goin
-
- towards the + 1 C plate.
 The net number of electrons moved in the direction of the positive charge plate depends upon the potential difference
between the two charges.

Volt (V) – unit of potential difference which is equal to one joule of work done per one coulomb of charge.
- named after the Italian physicist, Alessandro C. Volta (1754 – 1827) who invented the first electric battery.

ELECTRIC CURRENT (CHARGE IN MOTION)

When a potential difference between two charges forces a third charge to move, the charge in motion is called an electric
current.

current
+ Positive charge
-
-
- - -
-
Negative charge - -
Ampere (A) – unit of charge flow equal to one coulomb of charge past a given point in one second.
- named after the French physicist and mathematician Andre M. Ampere (1775 – 1836).

Example: A cloud of 2.5 x 10 electrons

19 move past a given point every 2 seconds. How much is the intensity of the charge
flow?

Solution: Charge = 2.5 x10 electron \s (1 Coulomb / 6.25 x 10 electrons)

19 18
= 4 Coulombs
Intensity of charge flow = Charge per second
= 4 Coulombs / 2 Seconds
= 2 Amperes

RESISTANCE (OPPOSITION TO CHARGE FLOW)

The fact that a wire carrying a current can become hot, it is evident that the work done by the applied force in producing
the current must be accomplished against some opposition.

Ohm (Ω) – practical unit of resistance.

- named after the German physicist, George S. Ohm (1787 – 1854).

Factors affecting resistance:

1. Kind of material
2. Length
3. Cross-sectional area
4. Temperature
 pL pV pL²
A A² V
R
Where: R = resistance R R
= A = cross-sectional area = =
P = resistivity
L = length
V = volume = cross-sectional area x length

Specific resistance or resistivity – resistance offered by a unit cube of the material.

Circular mil (CM) – area of a circle having a diameter (d) of one mil.

CM = d²

Effect of temperature in resistance:

1,000 mil = 1 inch
- experiments have shown that the resistance of all wires generally used in practice in electrical systems, increased as the
temperature increases. 1 MCM = 1,000 CM
R =T+t R
R T+t R

1 1 2= 1 + t  = 1
2 2 1 T + 1t
where: R = initial resistance
R
1
= final resistance
T =2inferred absolute temperature
= temperature when resistance of a given material is zero
t = initial temperature
1
t = final temperature
 t2= change in temperature
= t -t
2 1 coefficient of resistance
 = temperature
= ohmic change per degree per ohm at some specified temperature

Material  (  - CM / ft ) T ( ° C ) at 20 ° C
Silver 9.9 243 0.0038
Copper 10.37 234.5 0.00393
Aluminum 17 236 0.0039
Tungsten 33 202 0.0045
Zinc 36 250 0.0037
Nickel 47 147 0.00598
CONDUCTANCE (RECIPROCAL OF RESISTANCE)

Conductance (G) – is a measure of the material’s ability to conduct electric current.

1
G
R
=
Siemens ( formerly mho) – unit of conductance.
- named after the German engineer, Ernst Werner von Siemens (1816 – 1892).

Resistor – a linear circuit element specifically designed to have a specific value of resistance.

Common types of resistors:

1. Wire wound resistor – a special type of wire called resistance wire (tungsten or manganin) is wrapped around an
insulating core (commonly porcelain, cement or pressed paper). They are generally used for high current applications
where accurate resistance value is necessary. Its wattage ratings are available from 5 watts or more.

2. Carbon composition resistor – this resistor is made from finely divided carbon or graphite mixed with a powdered
insulating material as a binder and joined to the two ends are two metal caps with tinned lead for soldering to
connections to the circuit. Its wattage ratings are available are 1/8, 1/4,1/2, 1 or 2 watts.

First color (First digit) Fourth color (tolerance)

Second color (Second digit) Third color (Multiplier)
Resistor Color Coding:

Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 10 º = 1
Brown 1 10¹ = 10
Red 2 10 ² = 100
Orange 3 10³ = 1000
4
Yellow 4 10 = 10000
5
Green 5 10 = 100000
Blue 6 10 = 1000000 6

Violet 7 10 = 10000000 7

Gray 8 10 = 100000000 8

White 9 10 = 1000000000 9
Gold 10 = 0.1 ± 5 % -1
Silver 10 = 0.01 ± 10 %-2
No color ± 20 %

Tolerance – the amount in percent by which the actual resistance can be different from the color coded value.

Power rating of resistors

- a physical property that depends on the resistor construction (physical size). The larger the size, the higher is the power
rating of the resistor.
 Example: What is the ohmic resistance of a resistor with the color bands: brown, black, orange and gold?

Solution: Brown = 1 (first digit)

Black = 0 (second digit)
Orange = 10 ³ = 1,000 (multiplier)
Gold = ± 5 % (tolerance)

Thus, the value is 10 x 10³ = 10,000 ohms with a tolerance of ± 5 %.

Variable resistance resistor – it can either be wire wound or carbon composition.

Common types:

1. Rheostat – a variable resistance with 2 terminals connected in series with the load (the purpose of which is to vary the
current).

1 2
+
_
R

E Loa
d
 2. Potentiometer – a variable resistance with 3 terminals (the purpose is to vary the voltage between the center terminals
and the ends).

1
+ R 3
E
- 2
Loa
OHM’S LAW & THE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
d
Electric circuit – a closed path for electric current to flow.

Ohm’s Law – states that the current flowing in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the impressed emf applied to the
circuit and inversely to the equivalent resistance of the said circuit.

E I= R= E=
I R E E IR
I
R
 Where: E = impressed voltage in volt
I = current drawn in ampere
R = resistance in ohm

Electrical power – rate of using or consuming the electrical energy.

Watt – unit of electrical energy equal to one joule of energy consumed in one second.
- named after the British engineer and inventor James Watt ( 1736 – 1819).

P = EI P= P=
I²R E²
Where: P = electrical power in watt R
E = voltage in volt
I = current in ampere
R = resistance in ohm

Other practical units of power:

1 horsepower (Hp) = 746 watts

1 kilowatt (kW) = 1,000 watts
1 megawatt (MW) = 1,000,000 watts
Kilowatt-hour (kW-hr) – unit in which electrical energy is sold to a customer.
kW – hr = kilowatts x hours
 Note: 1 day = 24 hours
1 month = 30 days
1 year = 365 days
= 8760 hours

C = (kW – hr) x (cost per kW – hr)

Where: C = total cost of using or consuming electrical energy.

Types of electrical circuits according to connections:

a. Series circuit – the resistances are connected end to end.

E E2 E3
+ 1 - + - + -
It R1 R2 R3
+ I1 I2 I3
Et
-

Rt = R1 + 2R Et = E1 + 2E +3 It =1I +2I 3
3
+R E +I
Voltage Division Theorem (VDT) in two resistors connected in series:

E1 E2
+ - + -
R1 R2

Et +
-

E R1 E R2
E1 = Rt+ R E2 = Rt+ R
b. Parallel circuit – the resistances are connected across each other.1 2
1 2

It + + +

+
Et R1 E1 R2 E2 R3 E3
-
I1 I2 I3
- - -
 1
Rt= 1 1 1 Et= E1= E2= E3 I t= I1+ I2+ I3
+ +
R1 R2 R3
Current Division Theorem (CDT) in two resistors connected in parallel:

It

+
Et R1 R2
-
I1 I2

IR IR
I1 = Rt+2R I2 = Rt+1R
1 2 1 2
c. Series – parallel circuit – a combinational circuit which when simplified will result into a series circuit.
 R1
+
Et R2 R3
-

R R3
Rt = R1+ R 2
2+ R3
d. Parallel – series circuit – a combinational circuit which when simplified will result into a parallel circuit.

R2
+
Et R1 R3
-

Rt = R1(R2 + R3)
R1+ (R2 + R3)
e. Delta and wye connected resistances:

1
A = XY + YZ + ZX
A C Z
B = XY + YZ + ZX
X
2 3 C = XY + YZ + ZX
B Y
1 X= AC
A+B+C
Y= AB
X A+B+C
Z= BC
A+B+C
Y Z

R = R
Y
2 3 3
R = 3RY
 ELECTRICITY

1. MOLECULES – The combination of two or more

atoms. The smallest unit into which a substance—
such as water—can be divided and still be
identified as that substance.

2. ATOM – The smallest particle into which an

element—such as oxygen—can be divided and still
retain its original properties.

3. NUCLEUS – The heavy positively charged

central part of the atom.

4. NEUTRON – The heavy neutral particles in

the nucleus that behave like a combination of a
proton and an electron.

5. PROTON – The heavy positively charged

particles in the nucleus.
6. ELECTRON – The very small negatively
charged particles which are practically
weightless and circle the nucleus in orbits.

7. BOUND ELECTRONS – Electrons in orbit in

an atom.

8. FREE ELECTRONS – Electrons that have left

their orbit in an atom and are wandering freely
through a material.

9. ELECTRIC CURRENT – The directional

movement of free electrons.

10. POSITIVE CHARGE – A deficiency of

electrons.

11. NEGATIVE CHARGE – A surplus of electrons

 CONDUCTORS/INSULATORS/SEMICONDUCTORS

1. CONDUCTORS – Materials that permit the

free movement of many electrons.

2. INSULATORS – Materials that do not permit

the free movement of many electrons.

3. SEMICONDUCTORS – Materials that can,

when properly made, function as a conductor
or insulator depending on the direction of
current flow.

4. GOOD CONDUCTORS – Silver, copper,

aluminum, zinc, brass, and iron are the best
conductors, listed in the order of their ability
to conduct.

5. GOOD INSULATORS – Dry air, glass, ceramics, mica

rubber, plastics, and slate are among the best
insulators listed approximately in the order of their
ability to insulate.
 CURRENT FLOW
1. FREE ELECTRONS – Electrons in the outer
orbits of an atom which can easily be forced out
of their orbits.

2. CURRENT FLOW – Movement of free

electrons in the same direction in a material.

3. ELECTRON CURRENT – Current flow from a

negative charge to a positive charge.

4. CONVENTIONAL CURRENT – Current flow

from a positive charge to negative charge.

5. AMPERE – The unit of measure of current

flow. It is equal to 1 coulomb per second

6. “I” The current symbol used to designate

current in schematic drawings and formulas.
 HOW ELECTRICITY PRODUCED AND USED
1. FRICTION – Electricity produced by rubbing
two materials together.

2. PRESSURE – Electricity produced by

applying pressure to a crystal of certain
materials.

3. HEAT – Electricity produced by heating the

junction of a thermocouple.

4. LIGHT – Electricity produced by light

striking photosensitive materials.
5. CHEMICAL ACTION – Electricity produced by
chemical reaction in an electric cell.

6. MAGNETISM – Electricity produced by the

relative movement of a magnet and a wire that
results in the cutting of lines of force. The
amount of electricity produced will depend on:
(a) the number of turns in the coil; (b) the
speed with which the relative motions of the
coil and the magnet take place; (c) the strength
of the magnet.
 ELECTROMAGNETISM
1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD – Current
flowing through a wire generates a magnetic
field whose direction is determined by the
direction of the current flow. The direction of
the generated magnetic field is found by using
the left-hand rule for a current-carrying
conductor.

2. MAGNETIC FIELD OF A LOOP OR COIL – A

loop generates a magnetic field exactly the same
as a bar magnet. If many loops are added in
series forming a coil, a stronger magnetic field
is generated. The left-hand rule for a coil is used
to determine the coil’s magnetic polarity.
3. FIELD STRENGTH – Increasing the number of
turns of a coil increases the field strength and
increasing the coil current also increases the
field strength. An iron core may be inserted to
concentrate the field greatly (increase flux
density) at the ends of the coil. The ampere-
turn is the unit used in comparing the strength
of electromagnetic fields.

4. PERMANENT-MAGNETS and
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS – Electromagnetic
fields are much stronger than the permanent
magnet type, and are used in most practical
electrical machinery. When electromagnets are
used, the field strength can be varied by varying
the amount of current flow through the field
coils.
 MAGNETISM

1. MAGNETIC POLES – Points on a magnet

where there is a strong concentration of the
magnetic field. If the magnet is allowed to
swing freely, the North pole points north and
the South pole points south.

2. MAGNETIC MATERIALS – Materials that

have magnetic groups of atoms called domains.
In unmagnetized material these domains are
randomly oriented but in magnetized material
the domains are all aligned in one direction.

3. MAGNETIC FIELD – Invisible lines of force

that leave the magnet at the North pole and
enter at the South pole. These lines are often
called flux lines.
4. FLUX DENSITY – A measure of the number
of flux lines per square centimeter that will
give a picture of the strength of a magnetic
field.

5. REPULSION OF POLES – Like poles repel.

6. ATTRACTION OF POLES – Unlike poles

attract.

7. RELUCTANCE – A measure of the ease with

which a material concentrates lines of force or
flux lines. Materials with low reluctance tend
strongly to concentrate flux lines. Magnetic
lines of force take the path of least reluctance

8. FLUX LINES DO NOT CROSS – Since flux

lines do not cross because of the repulsion
between them, they lie in parallel lines in a
magnetic field.
 VOLTAGE UNIT AND MEASUREMENT
1. VOLT – The unit of potential difference. It is
equal to work of 1 joule per coulomb.

2. MAINTENANCE OF EMF – EMF is

maintained by having a source of energy that is
converted into potential difference to keep the
emf constant, regardless of load.

3. MILLIVOLT – A unit of voltage equal to

1/1,000 volt.

4. MICROVOLT – A unit of voltage equal to

1/1,000,000 volt.

5. KILOVOLT – A unit of voltage equal to 1,000

volts.
6. VOLTMETER – Basic meter movement with a
series-connected multiplier, calibrated to
measure voltage.

7. MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER – A single meter

movement that is used to measure different
voltage ranges. Each range uses a different
multiplier that is selected by means of a
switch.

8. VOLTMETER CONNECTION – A voltmeter is

always connected across the circuit to be
measured since potential difference or voltage
exists between two points. Connections are
always made so that the positive (+) side of
the meter is connected closest to the part of
the circuit that goes to the positive (+)
terminal of the power source.
 THEORY OF MAGNET

1. MOLECULAR THEORY – based on the fact that is a magnetized piece of iron is cut into
a two pieces, new poles are developed out of their ends. It maintains that a
magnetic substance is made up of molecules which where magnet in themselves,
and that the magnetism possessed by the body depends upon the arrangement of
the molecules.

2. ELECTRON THEORY – based on the electrical nature of matter, according to this line of
thought, the magnetism of the body is due to the motion of electrons acts as a tiny
permanent magnet. The electron revolving about the molecules of an atom imparts
a magnetic property to the atomic structure.

MAGNETIC POLES

POLES – The two ends where the magnetic force is strongest or greatest. They are the
points where the iron filling cling in the greatest quantity.

NORTH POLE OR N-POLE – the end pole that points to the north when the magnet
suspended freely.

SOUTH POLE OR S-POLE – the opposite pole which points to the south. It is also called
south seeking pole.
CONSEQUENT POLE – acquired by long bar magnet.

UNIT POLE – maybe through as a standard pole which repel exactly similar pole place 1
centimeter away with a force of a dyne. (1 dyne = 0.00001 Newton)

MAGNETIC POLARITY – the concentration of magnetic strength on the tendency of having

more lines of force at the ends of a magnet.

MAGNETIC ATTRACTION AND REPULSION – the law of magnet states that:

1. like poles repels each other
2. unlike poles attract each other

MAGNETISM

MAGNET – is a substance that posses the property of attracting iron or steel.

MAGNETIC SUBSTANCE – is any substance that is attracted by magnet.

MAGNETISM – is the property of magnet to attract or repel certain substance.

- the study of facts or phenomena associated with magnets or magnetic
materials.
 KINDS OF MAGNET

1. NATURAL MAGNETS – are those found in nature (lodestone).

2. ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS – are those made by man. They are temporary magnets.
a.) permanent magnet – uses for a long time (hard iron).
b.) Temporary magnet – use for a short time (under the influence of permanent
magnet; soft iron).

FORMS OF MAGNETS MADE BY MAN

1. bar magnet
2. horse shoe style
3. ring style
4. cylindrical style

KINDS OF SUBSTANCE

1. FERRO MAGNETIC SUBSTANCE – this show strong magnetic attraction (repulsion) when
they are brought. Ex. Iron, nickel, cobalt.
1. FARRA MAGNETIC SUBSTANCE – slightly or weakly attracted by strong magnet. Ex.
Aluminum, platinum.

3. DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCE – weakly repel by strong magnet. Ex. Lead, gold.

 ELECTRIC CHARGES

1. NEGATIVE CHARGE – an excess of electrons.

2. POSITIVE CHARGE – A lack of electrons.

3. REPULSION OF CHARGES – Like charges attract each other.

4. ATTRACTION OF CHARGES – Unlike charges attract each other.

5. STATIC ELECTRICITY – Electric charges at rest.

6. FRICTION CHARGE – A charge caused by rubbing one material against another.

7. ELECTRIC FIELD – A field of force that surrounds a charged body.

8. CONTACT CHARGE – Transfer of a charge from one material to another by direct contact.

9. INDUCTION CHARGE – Transfer of a charge from one material to another without actual
contact.
10. CONTACT DISCHARGE – Electrons crossing over from a negative charge to positive
through contact.

11. ARC DISCHARGE – Electrons crossing over from a negative charge to positive through
an arc.

12. COULOMB’S LAW – The force of attraction or repulsion is proportional to the amount
of charge on each body and inversely proportional.
Insulation: The early rubber insulation has been replaced by thermoplastic insulation with
excellent aging properties, thermal characteristics, and dielectric strength.
 
Wraps: Cotton braiding has been replaced with impregnated paper material that has good
dielectric qualities and is moisture-resistant.
 
Anti-short bushings: Fibrous material used in early bushings has been replaced by
thermoplastics that allow easy sliding and eliminate ripping, tearing, and deterioration.
 
Bonding wire: Easily breakable, flat bonding wire has been eliminated and replaced with a
bonding wire that is in constant contact with the armor throughout the cable length.
 
Galvanizing: The early practice of galvanizing the sheet steel first, then cutting it into strips,
left the cut edges unprotected and allowed them to rust. This technique has been di-opped in
favor of galvanizing the steel after cutting, providing superior corrosion resistance.
 
Cutting techniques: A handheld roto-cutter (Seatek Co. Inc. pioneered the first commercially
successful BX armor cable cutter in 1973. This patented tool is known as the Roto-Split) is now
available to use in lieu of hacksaws, pliers, etc., for fast, automatically controlled cuts that
significantly reduce the possibility of conductor damage.
 Thermoelectric Sensitivity

The Seebeck coefficients (thermoelectric sensitivities) of some common

materials at 0 °C (32 °F) are listed in the following table.

Seebeck Seebeck
Material SeebeckCoeff. *   Material   Material
Coeff. * Coeff. *

Aluminum 3.5   Gold 6.5   Rhodium 6.0

Antimony 47   Iron 19   Selenium 900

Bismuth -72   Lead 4.0   Silicon 440

Cadmium 7.5   Mercury 0.60   Silver 6.5

Carbon 3.0   Nichrome 25   Sodium -2.0

Constantan -35   Nickel -15   Tantalum 4.5

Copper 6.5   Platinum 0   Tellurium 500
Germanium 300   Potassium -9.0   Tungsten 7.5
*: Units are mV/°C; all data provided at a temperature of 0 °C (32 °F)

The above table also reveals some possible wire pairings. For instance, iron or copper can be
put on the positive terminal while constantan can be used for the negative terminal of a
thermocouple circuit (Type J and T).
Coal-fired units produce electricity by burning
coal in a boiler to heat water to produce
steam. The steam, at tremendous pressure,
flows into a turbine, which spins a generator to
produce electricity. The steam is cooled,
condensed back into water, and returned to
the boiler to start the process over.