INTRODUCTION

Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon
which all branches of electrical engineering are built. Many branches of electrical engineering,
such as power, electric machines, control, electronics, communications, and instrumentation,
are based on electric circuit theory. Therefore, the basic electric circuit theory course is the most
important course for an electrical engineering student, and always an excellent starting point for
a beginning student in electrical engineering education. Circuit theory is also valuable to
students specializing in other branches of the physical sciences because circuits are a good
model for the study of energy systems in general, and because of the applied mathematics,
physics, and topology involved.
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring
energy from one point to another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices.
Such interconnection is referred to as an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is
known as an element.
A circuit consists of electrical elements connected together. Engineers use electric
circuits to solve problems that are important to modern society. In particular:
1. Electric circuits are used in the generation, transmission, and consumption of electric
power and energy.
2. Electric circuits are used in the encoding, decoding, storage, retrieval, transmission, and
processing of information.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this module, it is expected that the students will be able to:
1. Describe the general aspects of generation of direct current systems.
2. Explain the relationships between basic electrical quantities: voltage, current and power.
THEORY OF ELECTRICITY

What is “Electricity”?

Electricity is a natural phenomenon that occurs throughout nature and takes many
different forms. In this tutorial we'll focus on current electricity: the stuff that powers our
electronic gadgets. Our goal is to understand how electricity flows from a power source through
wires, lighting up LEDs, spinning motors, and powering our communication devices.

Electricity is briefly defined as the flow of electric charge, but there's so much behind
that simple statement. Where do the charges come from? How do we move them? Where do
they move to? How does an electric charge cause mechanical motion or make things light up?
So many questions! To begin to explain what electricity is we need to zoom way in, beyond the
matter and molecules, to the atoms that make up everything we interact with in life.

⮚ form of energy

⮚ Greatest discoveries of man

⮚ Come from the greek word “electron” which means amber

⮚ Electricity is all about electrons, which are the fundamental cause of electricity
⮚ Static Electricity - involves electrons that are moved from one place to another, usually
by rubbing or brushing

⮚ Current Electricity - involves the flow of electrons in a conductor

To understand the fundamentals of electricity, we need to begin by focusing in on atoms,

one of the basic building blocks of life and matter. Atoms exist in over a hundred different forms
as chemical elements like hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and copper. Atoms of many types can
combine to make molecules, which build the matter we can physically see and touch.

Atoms are tiny, stretching at a max to about 300 picometers long (that's 3x10-10 or
0.0000000003 meters). A copper penny (if it actually were made of 100% copper) would have
3.2x1022 atoms (32,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms) of copper inside it.

Even the atom isn't small enough to explain the workings of electricity. We need to dive down
one more level and look in on the building blocks of atoms: protons, neutrons, and electrons
FLOWING CHARGES
Electricity is defined as the flow of electric charge. Charge is a property of matter--just
like mass, volume, or density. It is measurable. Just as you can quantify how much mass
something has, you can measure how much charge it has. The key concept with charge is that it
can come in two types: positive (+) or negative (-).
In order to move charge we need charge carriers, and that's where our knowledge of
atomic particles--specifically electrons and protons--comes in handy. Electrons always carry a
negative charge, while protons are always positively charged. Neutrons (true to their name) are
neutral, they have no charge. Both electrons and protons carry the same amount of charge, just
a different type.

Figure 1.1 Structure of an atom

All materials are made up from atoms, and all atoms consist of protons, neutrons and
electrons. Protons, have a positive electrical charge. Neutrons have no electrical charge (that is
they are Neutral), while Electrons have a negative electrical charge. Atoms are bound together
by powerful forces of attraction existing between the atoms nucleus and the electrons in its outer
shell.
When these protons, neutrons and electrons are together within the atom they are happy
and stable. But if we separate them from each other they want to reform and start to exert a
potential of attraction called a potential difference.
Now if we create a closed circuit these loose electrons will start to move and drift back to
the protons due to their attraction creating a flow of electrons. This flow of electrons is called
an electrical current. The electrons do not flow freely through the circuit as the material they
move through creates a restriction to the electron flow. This restriction is called resistance.
ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
The charge of electrons and protons is important, because it provides us the means to
exert a force on them. Electrostatic force.
Electrostatic force (also called Coulomb's law) is a force that operates between
charges. It states that charges of the same type repel each other, while charges of opposite
types are attracted together. Opposites attract, and likes repel.

Figure 1.2 Response of charges (attraction and repulsion)

The amount of force acting on two charges depends on how far they are from each
other. The closer two charges get, the greater the force (either pushing together, or pulling
away) becomes.
Thanks to electrostatic force, electrons will push away other electrons and be attracted
to protons. This force is part of the "glue" that holds atoms together, but it's also the tool we
need to make electrons (and charges) flow.

MAKING CHARGES FLOW

We now have all the tools to make charges flow. Electrons in atoms can act as our
charge carrier, because every electron carries a negative charge. If we can free an electron from
an atom and force it to move, we can create electricity.
Consider the atomic model of a copper atom, one of the preferred elemental sources for
charge flow. In its balanced state, copper has 29 protons in its nucleus and an equal number of
electrons orbiting around it. Electrons orbit at varying distances from the nucleus of the atom.
Electrons closer to the nucleus feel a much stronger attraction to the center than those in distant
orbits. The outermost electrons of an atom are called the valence electrons, these require the
least amount of force to be freed from an atom.
 Figure 1.3 Copper atom diagram

This is a copper atom diagram: 29 protons in the nucleus, surrounded by bands of circling
electrons. Electrons closer to the nucleus are hard to remove while the valence (outer ring)
electron requires relatively little energy to be ejected from the atom.
Using enough electrostatic force on the valence electron--either pushing it with another
negative charge or attracting it with a positive charge--we can eject the electron from orbit
around the atom creating a free electron.
Now consider a copper wire: matter filled with countless copper atoms. As our free
electron is floating in a space between atoms, it's pulled and prodded by surrounding charges in
that space. In this chaos the free electron eventually finds a new atom to latch on to; in doing so,
the negative charge of that electron ejects another valence electron from the atom. Now a new
electron is drifting through free space looking to do the same thing. This chain effect can
continue on and on to create a flow of electrons called electric current.

Figure 1.4 A very simplified model of charges flowing through atoms to make current.
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM (BOHR ATOMIC MODEL)

Figure 1.5 Structure of an atom

❖ Electrons – negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus of an atom.
Electron is one of the lightest particles with a known mass. The mass of one electron is
about 9.11 𝑥 10−31𝑘𝑔.
𝑁 = 2𝑛2
Where:
𝑁 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

❖ Protons – positively charged particles that stays in the nucleus of an atom. Protons is very
small, but it is fairly massive compared to the other particles that make up matter. The mass
of one proton is 1.673 𝑥 10−27𝑘𝑔 .
❖ Neutrons – particles having no charge. Neutrons are about same size as protons but their
mass is slightly greater, 1.675 𝑥 10−27𝑘𝑔 .
❖ Nucleus – the central part of the atom where the protons and neutrons are located.
❖ Atomic Number – represents the number of electrons or protons of an atom.
❖ Atomic Mass – represents the sum of protons and neutrons of an atom.
❖ Valence electrons – electrons found in the outermost shell or orbit of an atom.
MILESTONES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Many early scientists have made great contributions in developing the theorems of
electrical circuits. The laws and physical quantities that they discovered are named after them,
and all are important milestones in the field of electric engineering. The following are some of
the most common people in this course.
● Coulomb is the unit of electric charge; it was named in honor of Charles Augustin de
Coulomb (1736–1806), a French physicist. Coulomb developed Coulomb’s law, which is
the definition of the electrostatic force of attraction and repulsion, and the principle of
charge interactions (attraction or repulsion of positive and negative electric charges).
● Faraday is the unit of capacitance; it was named in honor of Michael Faraday (1791–
1867), an English physicist and chemist. He discovered that relative motion of the
magnetic field and conductor can produce electric current, which we know today as the
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Faraday also discovered that the electric
current originates from the chemical reaction that occurs between two metallic
conductors.
● Ampere is the unit of electric current; it was named in honor of Andre´-Marie Ampe`re
(1775–1836), a French physicist. He was one of the main discoverers of
electromagnetism and is best known for defining a method to measure the flow of
current.
● Ohm is the unit of resistance; it was named in honor of Georg Simon Ohm (1789–1854),
a German physicist. He established the relationship between voltage, current, and
resistance, and formulated the most famous electric circuit law—Ohm’s law.
● Volt is the unit of voltage; it was named in honor of Alessandro Volta (1745– 1827), an
Italian physicist. He constructed the first electric battery that could produce a reliable,
steady current.
● Watt is the unit of power; it was named in honor of James Watt (1736–1819), a Scottish
engineer and an inventor. He made great improvements in the steam engine and made
important contributions in the area of magnetic fields.
● Lenz’s law was named in honor of Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz (1804–1865), a Baltic
German physicist. He discovered that the polarity of the induced current that is produced
in the conductor of the magnetic field always resists the change of its induced voltage;
this is known as Lenz’s law.
● Maxwell is the unit of magnetic flux; it was named in honor of James Clerk Maxwell
(1831– 1879), a Scottish physicist and mathematician. The German physicist Wilhelm
Eduard Weber (1804–1891) shares the honor with Maxwell (1 Wb ¼ 108 Mx). Maxwell
had
 established the Maxwell’s equations that represent perfect ways to state the
fundamentals of electricity and magnetism.
● Hertz is the unit of frequency; it was named in honor of Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
(1857–1894), a German physicist and mathematician. He was the first person to
broadcast and receive radio waves. Through the low-frequency experiment, Hertz
confirmed Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory.
● Henry is the unit of inductance; it was named in honor of Joseph Henry (1797– 1878), a
Scottish-American scientist. He discovered self-induction and mutual inductance.
● Joule is the unit of energy; it was named in honor of James Prescott Joule (1818–1889),
an English physicist. He made great contributions in discovering the law of the
conservation of energy. This law states that energy may transform from one form into
another, but is never lost. Joule’s law was named after him and states that heat will be
produced in an electrical conductor.

HOW IS ELECTRICITY PRODUCED?

A. Electricity Produced from Frictional Energy (Static Electricity)

Frictional Electricity is the least important of all methods for the production of electricity. It
can be produced by rubbing certain dissimilar materials together. One application of static
electricity is in a device used in atomic research called Van de Graf generator that will generate
miniature bolts of Lighting

Figure 1.6 Static electricity

B. Electricity produced from Pressure
Electricity produced from pressure is called piezoelectricity, which is produced by certain
crystalline materials such as quartz and barium titanate. If a crystal made of this material is
placed between two metal plates and pressure is exerted on the plates, an electric charge will
be developed but the amount of charge will depend on the amount of pressure exerted.

C. Electricity Produced from Heat

The amount of charge produced depends on the difference in temperature between
junction and the opposite ends of two wires. A greater temperature difference results in a
greater charge. Electricity is produced by heating the junction of a thermocouple.

Figure 1.7 Electricity from heat

D. Electricity Produced from Chemical Reaction

Electric cells are electricity produced by chemical reactions.

Figure 1.8 Electricity produced from chemical reaction

E. Electricity Produced from Light
The electricity is produced by light striking photosensitive materials. These materials
release electrons when excited by light under the right conditions. These releases of electrons
are called photoelectric effect.

Figure 1.9 Solar panels

F. Electricity Produced from Magnetism

Electricity produced by relative movement of a magnet and a wire that result in the cutting
of lines of force. The amount of electricity produced will depend on:
a. the number of turns in coil
b. the speed with which relative motions of the coil and the magnet take place
c. the strength of the magnet

Figure 1.10 Simple electric generator

BASIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ELEMENT

SYSTEM OF UNITS
The system of units used in engineering and science is the Systeme Internationale d’Unites
(International system of units), usually abbreviated to SI units, and is based on the metric
system. This was introduced in 1960 and is now adopted by the majority of countries as the
official system of measurement.
The International System of Units (SI) is the modern form of the metric system derived
from the meter-kilogram-second (MKS) system. The SI system is founded on seven base units
for the seven quantities assumed to be mutually independent.
The following tables give information on the SI system, come from the NIST Reference
on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty (http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/units.html), the official
reference of the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

The basic units in the SI system are listed with their symbols.
Table 1.1 SI Basic Units

Derived SI units use combinations of basic units and there are many of them. Two
examples are:
❖ Velocity—metres per second (m/s)
❖ Acceleration—metres per second squared (m/s2)
 Table 1.2 Examples of SI Derived Units

Table 1.3 SI Derived Units with Special Names and Symbols

Table 1.4 Examples of SI Derived Units with Names and Symbols
(Including Special Names and Symbols)

Table 1.5 Metric Prefixes

 Table 1.6. Units Outside the SI That Are Accepted for Use with the SI System

A meter is defined as the length of a path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time
interval of 1299,792,458 [(- 1(3 3 108)] of a second.
A kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram.
A second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.
An ampere is the constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors
of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would
produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newtons per meter of length.
A kelvin, is 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
A mole is the amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12; its symbol is mol. When the mole is
used, the elementary entities must be specified; they may be atoms, molecules, ion, electrons,
other particles, or specified groups of such particles.
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz (Hz) and that has the radiant intensity in
that direction of 1683 watt per steradian.
LEARNING ASSESSMENT
DIRECTIONS: Convert the following.
1. 0.0876 dJ = J
2. 85.2 N = dN
3. 43. 1 kHz = Hz
4. 7.75 s = ks
5. 54.3 s = ms
6. 6kN = uN
7. 0.944hHz = mHz
8. 0.527hT = DT
9. 670000hC = nC
10. 9640nN = DN
11. 2650mW = kW
12. 0.483mV = uV
13. 116uF = nF
14. 1mPa = GPa
15. 0.94mΩ = MΩ
BASIC TERMINOLOGY IN CIRCUITS

⮚ Charge. The unit of charge is the coulomb (C) where one coulomb is one ampere second. (1
coulomb = 6.24 x1018 electrons). The coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which
flows past a given point in an electric circuit when a current of one ampere is maintained for
one second. Thus, charge in coulombs is

𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕

Where I is the current in amperes and t is time in seconds.

⮚ Force. The unit of force is the newton (N) where one newton is one kilogrammetre per
second squared. The newton is defined as the force which, when applied to a mass of one
kilogram, gives it an acceleration of one metre per second squared. Thus, force, in newtons
is

𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

where m is the mass in kilograms and a is the acceleration in metres per second squared.
Gravitational force, or weight, is mg, where g = 9.81 m/s2
⮚ Work. The unit of work or energy is the joule (J) where one joule is one newton metre. The
joule is defined as the work done or energy transferred when a force of one newton is
exerted through a distance of one metre in the direction of the force. Thus work done on a
body, in joules is

𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔

where F is the force in Newtons and s is the distance in metres moved by the body in the
direction of the force. Energy is the capacity for doing work.

⮚ Power. The unit of power is the watt (W) where one watt is one joule per second. Power is
defined as the rate of doing work or transferring energy. Thus, power in watts,

𝑾
𝑷=
𝒕

where W is the work done or energy transferred in joules and t is the time in seconds. Thus
energy, in joules,

𝑾 = 𝑷𝒕
⮚ Electrical potential and e.m.f.
The unit of electric potential is the volt (V) where one volt is one joule per coulomb. One
volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points in a conductor which, when
carrying a current of one ampere, dissipates a power of one watt, i.e.

𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 = = 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔 − 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎
𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
= = 𝒃
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

A change in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit is called a potential
difference. The electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided by a source of energy such as a battery or
a generator is measured in volts.
⮚ Resistance and Conductance
The unit of electric resistance is the ohm (Z) where one ohm is one volt per ampere. It is
defined as the resistance between two points in a conductor when a constant electric potential
of one volt applied at the two points produces a current flow of one ampere in the conductor.
Thus, resistance, in ohms where V is the potential difference across the two points in volts and I
is the current flowing between the two points in amperes.

𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰

The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance (G) and is measured in siemens (S).
Thus, conductance, in siemens
𝟏
𝑮=
𝑹

⮚ Electrical Power and Energy

When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an electric circuit and the voltage across
the circuit is V volts, then power, in watts:

𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒙 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = VIt (Joules)

Although the unit of energy is the joule, when dealing with large amounts of energy, the
unit used is the kilowatt hour (kWh) where
1 kWh = 1000 watt hour
= 1000 x 3600 watt seconds or joules = 3 600 000 J
BASIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Electric circuit: It is a closed loop of pathway with electric charges flowing through it. It is
the sum of all electric components in the closed loop of pathway with flowing electric charges.
An example of an electric circuit includes resistors, capacitors, inductors, power sources, wires,
switches, etc.
A basic electric circuit contains three components: the power supply, the electrical load,
and the wires (conductors)

Figure 1.11 Requirements of a basic circuit

Wires connect the power supply and the load, and

carry electric charges through the
circuit.

A power supply (power source) is a device that

supplies electrical energy to the load of
the circuit; it can convert other forms of energy to electrical energy. The electric battery and
generator are examples of power supply.
● The battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
● The hydroelectric generator converts hydro energy (the energy of moving water) into
electrical energy.
● The thermo power generator converts heat energy into electrical energy.
● The nuclear power generator converts nuclear energy into electrical energy.
● The wind generator converts wind energy into electrical energy.
● The solar generator converts solar energy into electrical energy.

An electrical load is a device that is usually connected to the output terminal of an electric
circuit.
● The load consumes or absorbs electrical energy from the source.
 ● The load may be any device that can receive electrical energy and convert it into other
forms of energy.
Examples of electric loads:
● Electric lamp converts electrical energy into light energy.
● Electric stove converts electrical energy into heat energy.
● Electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
● Electric fan converts electrical energy into wind energy.
● Speaker converts electrical energy into sound energy.
● Solar cell converts sunlight into electrical energy.
● Microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy.

Figure 1.12 The flashlight circuit

Figure 1.13 Schematic of the flashlight circuit

Circuit symbols. The circuit symbols are the idealization and approximation of the actual circuit
components.

Table 1.6. The commonly used circuit schematic symbols

For example, both the battery and the direct current (DC) generator can convert other
energy forms into electrical energy and produce DC voltage. Therefore, they are represented by
the same circuit symbol—the DC power supply E.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Explore and Make Wiring and Circuit Diagrams using SmartDraw

1. Download SmartDraw found online.
2. Familiarize with SmartDraw by exploring the software
SmartDraw is easy to use too. Just select a template and start customizing. Click
and stamp electrical symbols onto your layout. Add connecting lines and arrows.
Reposition them on the page and SmartDraw will keep them connected, automatically.
Export it to Microsoft Word®, Excel®, PDF, or PowerPoint® with a single click.
You and your team can work on the same electrical diagram by sharing it on your
included online account or by using your favorite file sharing apps like Dropbox®, Google
Drive™, Box® or OneDrive®. You can also share files with non SmartDraw users by simply
emailing them a link.
3. Make an electrical diagram of your chosen electrical device.
BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

The most elementary quantity in an analysis of electric circuits is the electric charge. Our
interest in electric charge is centered around its motion, since charge in motion results in an
energy transfer. Of particular interest to us are those situations in which the motion is confined
to a definite closed path.
An electric circuit is essentially a pipeline that facilitates the transfer of charge from one
point to another. The time rate of change of charge constitutes an electric current.
Mathematically, the relationship is expressed as

𝒅𝒒(𝒕) 𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑜𝑟 𝒒(𝒕) = ∫
𝒅𝒕
𝒊(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
−
∞

Where:
𝒊(𝒕) is the time dependent current. 1 ampere is 1 coulomb per second.
𝒒(𝒕) is the time dependent charge
(lowercase letters represent time dependency, and capital letters are reserved for constant
quantities).

Based from previous discussion, current flow in metallic conductors results from electron
motion, the conventional current flow, which is universally adopted, represents the movement of
positive charges. The current flow maybe assumed to be the movement of positive charge
regardless of the physical phenomena that take place. It is important that the magnitude variable
is represented also by its direction.
Figure 1.14 shows two current flows. I1 = 2 A in Fig. 1.14a indicates that at any point in
the wire shown, 2 C of charge pass from left to right each second. I2 = −3 A in Fig. 1.14b
indicates that at any point in the wire shown, 3 C of charge pass from right to left each second.

Figure 1.14 (a) positive current flow; (b) negative current flow
There are two types of current that we encounter often in our daily lives,
● alternating current (ac); and
● direct current (dc)
Alternating current is the common current found in every household and is used to run the
refrigerator, stove, washing machine, and so on. Batteries, which are used in automobiles and
flashlights, are one source of direct current.

Figure 1.15 Two common types of current: (a) alternating current (ac); (b) direct current (dc)

It has been indicated that charges in motion yield an energy transfer. The voltage (also
called the electromotive force, or potential) between two points in a circuit as the difference in
energy level of a unit charge located at each of the two points. Voltage is very similar to a
gravitational force.
Think about a bowling ball being dropped from a ladder into a tank of water. As soon as
the ball is released, the force of gravity pulls it toward the bottom of the tank. The potential
energy of the bowling ball decreases as it approaches the bottom. The gravitational force is
pushing the bowling ball through the water. Think of the bowling ball as a charge and the voltage
as the force pushing the charge through a circuit. Charges in motion represent a current, so the
motion of the bowling ball could be thought of as a current. The water in the tank will resist the
motion of the bowling ball. The motion of charges in an electric circuit will be impeded or
resisted as well.
 Figure 1.16 Typical current magnitudes

Work or energy, w(t) or W, is measured in joules (J); 1 joule is 1 newton meter (N . m).
Hence, voltage [υ (t) or V] is measured in volts (V) and 1 volt is 1 joule per coulomb; that is,
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb = 1 newton meter per coulomb. If a unit positive charge is moved
between two points, the energy required to move it is the difference in energy level between the
two points and is the defined voltage. It is extremely important that the variables used to
represent voltage between two points be defined in such a way that the solution will let us
interpret which point is at the higher potential with respect to the other.

Figure 1.17 Voltage representations

In Fig. 1.17a the variable that represents the voltage between points A and B has been
defined as V1, and it is assumed that point A is at a higher potential than point B, as indicated by
the + and − signs associated with the variable and defined in the figure. The + and − signs
define a reference direction for V1. If V1 = 2 V, then the difference in potential of points A and B is
2V and point A is at the higher potential. If a unit positive charge is moved from point A through
the circuit to point B, it will give up energy to the circuit and have 2J less energy when it reaches
point B. If a unit positive charge is moved from point B to point A, extra energy must be added to
the charge by the circuit, and hence the charge will end up with 2J more energy at point A than it
started with at point B.
For the circuit in Fig. 1.17b, V2 = −5 V means that the potential between points A and B
is 5 V and point B is at the higher potential. The voltage in Fig. 1.7b can be expressed as shown
in Fig. 1.17c. In this equivalent case, the difference in potential between points A and B is V2 =
5V, and point B is at the higher potential.

Note that it is important to define a variable with a reference direction so that the answer
can be interpreted to give the physical condition in the circuit. We will find that it is not possible
in many cases to define the variable so that the answer is positive, and we will also find that it is
not necessary to do so.
The range of magnitudes for voltage is shown in Fig. 1.18. Once again, note that this
range spans many orders of magnitude.

Figure 1.18 Typical voltage magnitudes

 With accordance to the discussion of voltage and current, let us investigate the voltage–
current relationships for energy transfer using the flashlight shown in Fig. 1.19.

Figure 1.19a Flashlight circuit

The basic elements of a flashlight are a battery, a switch, a light bulb, and connecting
wires. Assuming a good battery, we all know that the light bulb will glow when the switch is
closed. A current now flows in this closed circuit as charges flow out of the positive terminal of
the battery through the switch and light bulb and back into the negative terminal of the battery.
The current heats up the filament in the bulb, causing it to glow and emit light. The light bulb
converts electrical energy to thermal energy; as a result, charges passing through the bulb lose
energy. These charges acquire energy as they pass through the battery as chemical energy is
converted to electrical energy. An energy conversion process is occurring in the flashlight as the
chemical energy in the battery is converted to electrical energy, which is then converted to
thermal energy in the light bulb.
Redrawing the flashlight as shown in Fig. 1.19b, show that a current I is flowing in this
diagram. Since the light bulb uses energy, the charges coming out of the bulb have less energy
than those entering the light bulb. In other words, the charges expend energy as they move
through the bulb. This is indicated by the voltage shown across the bulb. The charges gain
energy as they pass through the battery, which is indicated by the voltage across the battery.
Note the voltage–current relationships for the battery and bulb. The bulb is absorbing energy;
the current is entering the positive terminal of the voltage. For the battery, the current is leaving
the positive terminal, which indicates that energy is being supplied.
 Figure 1.19b Flashlight circuit with voltages and current

This is further illustrated in Fig. 1.20, where a circuit element has been extracted from a
larger circuit for examination. In Fig. 1.20a, energy is being supplied to the element by whatever
is attached to the terminals. Note that 2 A—that is, 2 C of charge—are moving from point A to
point B through the element each second. Each coulomb loses 3 J of energy as it passes
through the element from point A to point B. Therefore, the element is absorbing 6 J of energy
per second. Note that when the element is absorbing energy, a positive current enters the
positive terminal. In Fig. 1.20b energy is being supplied by the element to what ever is
connected to terminals A-B. In this case, note that when the element is supplying energy, a
positive current enters the negative terminal and leaves via the positive terminal. In this
convention, a negative current in one direction is equivalent to a positive current in the opposite
direction, and vice versa. Similarly, a negative voltage in one direction is equivalent to a positive
voltage in the opposite direction.

Figure 1.20 Voltage-current relationships for (a) energy absorbed and (b) energy supplied
 Voltage in joules per coulomb id defined as the energy required to move a positive charge
of 1 C through an element. Assume a differential amount of charge and energy, then
𝒅𝝎
𝒗 = 𝒅𝒒

Multiplying this quantity by the current in the element yields

𝒅𝒘 𝒅𝒒 𝒅𝒘 =𝑷
𝒗𝒊 = ( )=
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕

Figure 1.21 Sign convention of power

To determine the sign of any of the quantities involved, the variables for the current and
voltage should be arranged as shown in Fig. 1.21. The variable for the voltage 𝑣(t) is defined as
the voltage across the element with the positive reference at the same terminal that the current
variable i(t) is entering. This convention is called the passive sign convention and will be so
noted in the remainder of this book. The product of υ and i, with their attendant signs, will
determine the magnitude and sign of the power. If the sign of the power is positive, power is
being absorbed by the element; if the sign is negative, power is being supplied by the element.
Finally, it is important to note that our electrical networks satisfy the principle of
conservation of energy. Because of the relationship between energy and power, it can be
implied that power is also conserved in an electrical network. This result was formally stated in
1952 by
B. D. H. Tellegen and is known as Tellegen’s theorem—the sum of the powers absorbed by all
elements in an electrical network is zero. Another statement of this theorem is that the power
supplied in a network is exactly equal to the power absorbed. Checking to verify that Tellegen’s
theorem is satisfied for a particular network is one way to check our calculations when analyzing
electrical networks.

EXAMPLE No. 1.9

Suppose that your car will not start. To determine whether the battery is faulty, you turn
on the light switch and find that the lights are very dim, indicating a weak battery. You borrow a
friend’s car and a set of jumper cables. However, how do you connect his car’s battery to yours?
What do you want his battery to do?

Solution:
Essentially, his car’s battery must supply energy to yours, and therefore it should be
connected in the manner shown in Fig. 1.22. Note that the positive current leaves the positive
terminal of the good battery (supplying energy) and enters the positive terminal of the weak
battery (absorbing energy). Note that the same connections are used when charging a battery.

Figure 1.22 Diagram of example no. 1

In practical applications, there are often considerations other than simply the electrical
relations (e.g., safety). Such is the case with jump-starting an automobile. Automobile batteries
produce explosive gases that can be ignited accidentally, causing severe physical injury. Be
safe—follow the procedure described in your auto owner’s manual.
EXAMPLE 1.10
Given the two diagrams shown in Fig. 1.23 determine whether the element is absorbing
or supplying power and how much.

Figure 1.23 Component for example no. 2

SOLUTION:
In Fig. 1.23a, the power is 𝑃 = (2 𝑉)(– 4 𝐴) = – 8 𝑊. Therefore, the element is supplying power.
In Fig. 1.23b, the power is 𝑃 = (2 𝑉)(– 2 𝐴) = – 4 𝑊. Therefore, the element is supplying power.

EXAMPLE 1.11
We wish to determine the unknown voltage or current in Fig. 1.24.

Figure 1.24 Elements for example no. 3

SOLUTION:
In Fig. 1.24a, a power of –20 W indicates that the element is delivering power. Therefore, the
current enters the negative terminal (terminal A), and the voltage is 4 V. Thus, B is the positive
terminal, A is the negative terminal, and the voltage between them is 4 V.

In Fig. 1.24b, a power of +40 W indicates that the element is absorbing power and, therefore,
the current should enter the positive terminal B. The current thus has a value of −8 A, as shown
in the figure.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
Thus far, we have defined voltage, current, and power. In the remainder of this chapter
we will define both independent and dependent current and voltage sources. Although we will
assume ideal elements, we will try to indicate the shortcomings of these assumptions as we
proceed with the discussion.
In general, the elements we will define are terminal devices that are completely
characterized by the current through the element and/or the voltage across it. These elements,
which we will employ in constructing electric circuits, will be broadly classified as being either
active or passive. The distinction between these two classifications depends essentially on one
thing—whether they supply or absorb energy. As the words themselves imply, an active element
is capable of generating energy and a passive element cannot generate energy.
However, later we will show that some passive elements are capable of storing energy.
Typical active elements are batteries and generators. The three common passive elements are
resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

INDEPENDENT SOURCES
An independent voltage source is a two-terminal element that maintains a specified
voltage between its terminals regardless of the current through it as shown by the υ-i plot in Fig.
1.25a. The general symbol for an independent source, a circle, is also shown in Fig. 1.25a. As
the figure indicates, terminal A is 𝜐 (t) volts positive with respect to terminal B.
In contrast to the independent voltage source, the independent current source is a two -
terminal element that maintains a specified current regardless of the voltage across its
terminals, as illustrated by the υ-i plot in Fig. 1.25b. The general symbol for an independent
current source is also shown in Fig. 1.25b, where i(t) is the specified current and the arrow
indicates the positive direction of current flow.
 Figure 1.25 Symbols for (a) independent voltage source and (b) independent current source

In their normal mode of operation, independent sources supply power to the remainder
of the circuit. However, they may also be connected into a circuit in such a way that they absorb
power.
It is important that we pause here to interject a comment concerning a shortcoming of
the models. In general, mathematical models approximate actual physical systems only under a
certain range of conditions. Rarely does a model accurately represent a physical system under
every set of conditions. To illustrate this point, consider the model for the voltage source in Fig.
1.24a. We assume that the voltage source delivers υ volts regardless of what is connected to its
terminals. Theoretically, we could adjust the external circuit so that an infinite amount of current
would flow, and therefore the voltage source would deliver an infinite amount of power. This is,
of course, physically impossible. A similar argument could be made for the independent current
source. Hence, the reader is cautioned to keep in mind that models have limitations and thus
are valid representations of physical systems only under certain conditions.
For example, can the independent voltage source be utilized to model the battery in an
automobile under all operating conditions? With the headlights on, turn on the radio. Do the
headlights dim with the radio on? They probably won’t if the sound system in your automobile
was installed at the factory. If you try to crank your car with the headlights on, you will notice that
the lights dim. The starter in your car draws considerable current, thus causing the voltage at
the battery terminals to drop and dimming the headlights. The independent voltage source is a
good
model for the battery with the radio turned on; however, an improved model is needed for your
battery to predict its performance under cranking conditions.

Figure 1.26 Four different types of dependent sources

DEPENDENT SOURCES
In contrast to the independent sources, which produce a particular voltage or current
completely unaffected by what is happening in the remainder of the circuit, dependent sources
generate a voltage or current that is determined by a voltage or current at a specified location in
the circuit. These sources are very important because they are an integral part of the
mathematical models used to describe the behavior of many electronic circuit elements.

For example, metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) and bipolar

transistors, both of which are commonly found in a host of electronic equipment, are modelled
with dependent sources, and therefore the analysis of electronic circuits involves the use of
these controlled elements.

In contrast to the circle used to represent independent sources, a diamond is used to

represent a dependent or controlled source. Fig. 1.26 illustrates the four types of dependent
sources. The input terminals on the left represent the voltage or current that controls the
dependent source, and the output terminals on the right represent the output current or voltage
of the controlled source. Note that in Figs. 1.26a and d, the quantities μ and β are dimensionless
constants because we are transforming voltage to voltage and current to current. This is not the
case in Figs. 1.26b and c; hence, when we employ these elements a short time later, we must
describe the units of the factors r and g.

EXAMPLE 1.12
Determine the power absorbed or supplied by the elements in the network in Fig. 1.27.

Figure 1.27 Network for example 4

SOLUTION:
The current flow is out of the positive terminal of the 24-V source, and therefore this element is
supplying (2)(24) = 48 W of power. The current is into the positive terminals of elements 1 and
2, and therefore elements 1 and 2 are absorbing (2)(6) = 12 W and (2)(18) = 36 W, respectively.
Note that the power supplied is equal to the power absorbed.
 END OF CHAPTER TEST

DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions briefly. Write your answers on a clean sheet of
paper.

1. Name some other devices where electrical energy can change into light energy, and
change into heat energy.
2. List some forms of energy, other than heat or light, which can be produced by using
electricity. (Think of some electrical appliances you use.)
3. What is a conductor and an insulator?
4. Name several other materials that are conductors and several that are insulators.
5. What are the three parts of this simple electric circuit?

6. What is the purpose of each of the three parts?

7. Name several devices other than batteries that are used as a source of electrical
charges.
8. Name several devices other than a light globe that use the electrical energy carried by
the electricity.
9. Name several ways to produce electricity.

DIRECTIONS: Please circle the best answer.

1. True or False: Electricity is a form of energy.

a. True
b. False

2. How is electricity formed?

a. Transfer of protons
b. Transfer of atoms
c. Transfer of electrons
d. Transfer of neutrons
3. What are the two types of electricity?
a. Fast and slow electricity
b. Static and current electricity
c. Hot and cold electricity
d. Proton and electron electricity

4. True or False: A magnet has four poles: a north, south, east and west pole.
a. True
b. False

5. Engineer’s use magnets and magnetism to produce a lot of different

things. Which of the following is NOT produced using magnets?
a. Memory storage
b. Images of the human body
c. Building a house
d. Sort recyclable materials

6. True or False: An electrical circuit is any path electrons can move through.
a. True
b. False

7. Electrical current can easily travel through materials like

metals. What are these types of materials called?
a. Insulators
b. Resistors
c. Batteries
d. Conductors

8. True or False: You cannot make a battery out of fruit.

a. True
b. False