Introduction

Electric charge 
is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electromagnetic field. Electric charge can be positive or negative .
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. An object
with an absence of net charge is referred to as neutral. Early knowledge of
how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and
is still accurate for problems that do not require consideration of quantum
effects.
Electric charge is a conserved property; the net charge of an isolated system,
the amount of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge, cannot
change. Electric charge is carried by subatomic particles. In ordinary matter,
negative charge is carried by electrons, and positive charge is carried by the
protons in the nuclei of atoms. If there are more electrons than protons in a
piece of matter, it will have a negative charge, if there are fewer it will have a
positive charge, and if there are equal numbers it will be neutral. Charge
is quantized; it comes in integer multiples of individual small units called
the elementary charge, e, about 1.602×10−19 coulombs, which is the smallest
charge which can exist freely (particles called quarks have smaller charges,
multiples of 1/3e, but they are only found in combination, and always combine
to form particles with integer charge). The proton has a charge of + e, and the
electron has a charge of −e.
Electric charges produce electric fields. A moving charge also produces
a magnetic field. The interaction of electric charges with an electromagnetic
field (combination of electric and magnetic fields) is the source of
the electromagnetic (or Lorentz) force, which is one of the four fundamental
forces in physics. The study of photon-mediated interactions among charged
particles is called quantum electrodynamics.
The SI derived unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C) named after French
physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. In electrical engineering it is also
common to use the ampere-hour (Ah). In physics and chemistry it is common
to use the elementary charge (e) as a unit. Chemistry also uses the Faraday
constant as the charge on a mole of electrons. The lowercase symbol q often
denotes charge.

Electric field 
Is the physical field that surrounds electrically charged particles and exerts
force on all other charged particles in the field, either attracting or repelling
them. It also refers to the physical field for a system of charged
particles. Electric fields originate from electric charges, or from time-
varying magnetic fields. Electric fields and magnetic fields are both
manifestations of the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental
forces (or interactions) of nature.
Electric fields are important in many areas of physics, and are exploited
practically in electrical technology. In atomic physics and chemistry, for
instance, the electric field is the attractive force holding the atomic
nucleus and electrons together in atoms. It is also the force responsible
for chemical bonding between atoms that result in molecules.
The electric field is defined mathematically as a vector field that associates to
each point in space the (electrostatic or Coulomb) force per unit
of charge exerted on an infinitesimal positive test charge at rest at that
point. The derived SI units for the electric field are volts per meter (V/m),
exactly equivalent to Newton per coulomb (N/C).

Acknowledgement
 Primarily I would thank God for being able to complete this Physics
project on Electric Charges and Fields with success. Then I would like to thank
my Physics teacher Mr. Nand Kumar Sristava, whose valuable guidance has
been the ones that helped me patch this project and make it a full proof
success. His suggestions and his instructions have been a major contributor in
the completion of the project.

I would also thank my parents and friends who have helped me through
their guidance and various suggestions for the completion of the project.

_
_Aminul Islam __________ ( NAME)
__XII__A________ ( CLASS & SECTION)

Electric Charge
Overview
Charge is the fundamental property of matter that
exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter
with charge. Electric charge is a characteristic property of many subatomic
particles. The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the
elementary charge e; we say that electric charge is quantized. Michael
Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete
nature of electric charge. Robert Millikan's oil drop experiment demonstrated
this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. It has been discovered
that one type of particle, quarks, have fractional charges of either −1/3 or
+2/3, but it is believed they always occur in multiples of integral charge; free-
standing quarks have never been observed.

Diagram showing field lines and equipotentials around an electron, a negatively charged particle. In

an electrically neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons (which are
positively charged), resulting in a net zero overall charge
By convention, the charge of an electron is negative, −e, while that of
a proton is positive, +e. Charged particles whose charges have the same sign
repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs
attract. Coulomb's law quantifies the electrostatic force between two particles
by asserting that the force is proportional to the product of their charges,
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The
charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, but with
opposite sign.
The electric charge of a macroscopic object is the sum of the
electric charges of the particles that make it up. This charge is often small,
because matter is made of atoms, and atoms typically have equal numbers
of protons and electrons, in which case their charges cancel out, yielding a net
charge of zero, thus making the atom neutral.
An ion is an atom (or group of
atoms) that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net positive charge
(cation), or that has gained one or more electrons, giving it a net negative
charge (anion). Monatomic ions are formed from single atoms,
while polyatomic ions are formed from two or more atoms that have been
bonded together, in each case yielding an ion with a positive or negative net
charge.

Electric field induced by a positive electric charge (left) and a field induced by a negative electric
charge (right).

During the formation of macroscopic objects, constituent atoms and ions

usually combine to form structures composed of neutral ionic
compounds electrically bound to neutral atoms. Thus macroscopic objects tend
toward being neutral overall, but macroscopic objects are rarely perfectly net
neutral.
Sometimes macroscopic objects contain ions distributed throughout the
material, rigidly bound in place, giving an overall net positive or negative
charge to the object. Also, macroscopic objects made of conductive elements
can more or less easily (depending on the element) take on or give off
electrons, and then maintain a net negative or positive charge indefinitely.
When the net electric charge of an object is non-zero and motionless, the
phenomenon is known as static electricity. This can easily be produced by
rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as
rubbing amber with fur or glass with silk. In this way, non-conductive
materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively.
Charge taken from one material is moved to the other material, leaving an
opposite charge of the same magnitude behind. The law of conservation of
charge always applies, giving the object from which a negative charge is taken
a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice versa.
Even when an object's net charge is zero, the charge can be distributed non-
uniformly in the object (e.g., due to an external electromagnetic field, or bound
polar molecules). In such cases, the object is said to be polarized. The charge
due to polarization is known as bound charge, while the charge on an object
produced by electrons gained or lost from outside the object is called free
charge. The motion of electrons in conductive metals in a specific direction is
known as electric current.

Units
The SI derived unit of quantity of electric charge is the coulomb (symbol: C).
The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that passes through the cross
section of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere for one second. This
unit was proposed in 1946 and ratified in 1948. In modern practice, the
phrase "amount of charge" is used instead of "quantity of charge". The
lowercase symbol q is often used to denote a quantity of electricity or charge.
The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an electrometer,
or indirectly measured with a ballistic galvanometer.
The amount of charge in 1 electron (elementary charge) is defined as a
fundamental constant in the SI system of units, (effective from 20 May 2019).
[8]
 The value for elementary charge, when expressed in the SI unit for electric
charge (coulomb), is exactly 1.602176634×10−19 C.
After finding the quantized character of charge, in 1891 George
Stoney proposed the unit 'electron' for this fundamental unit of electrical
charge. This was before the discovery of the particle by J. J. Thomson in 1897.
The unit is today referred to as elementary charge, fundamental unit of charge,
or simply as e. A measure of charge should be a multiple of the elementary
charge e, even if at large scales charge seems to behave as a real quantity. In
some contexts it is meaningful to speak of fractions of a charge; for example in
the charging of a capacitor, or in the fractional quantum Hall effect.
The unit faraday is sometimes used in electrochemistry. One faraday of charge
is the magnitude of the charge of one mole of electrons, i.e. 96485.33289(59)
C.
In systems of units other than SI such as cgs, electric charge is expressed as
combination of only three fundamental quantities (length, mass, and time),
and not four, as in SI, where electric charge is a combination of length, mass,
time, and electric current.

History
From ancient times, people were familiar with four types of phenomena that
today would all be explained using the concept of electric charge:
(a) lightning, (b) the torpedo fish (or electric ray), (c) St Elmo's Fire, and (d)
that amber rubbed with fur would attract small, light objects.  The first
account of the amber effect is often attributed to the ancient Greek
mathematician Thales of Miletus, who lived from c. 624 – c. 546 BC, but there
are doubts about whether Thales left any writings; his account about amber is
known from an account from early 200s. This account can be taken as
evidence that the phenomenon was known since at least c. 600 BC, but Thales
explained this phenomenon as evidence for inanimate objects having a soul. In
other words, there was no indication of any conception of electric charge.
More generally, the ancient Greeks did not understand the connections among
these four kinds of phenomena. The Greeks observed that the charged amber
buttons could attract light objects such as hair. They also found that if they
rubbed the amber for long enough, they could even get an electric spark to
jump, but there is also a claim that no mention of electric sparks appeared
until late 17th century. This property derives from the triboelectric effect. In
late 1100s, the substance jet, a compacted form of coal, was noted to have an
amber effect, and in the middle of the 1500s, Girolamo Fracastoro, discovered
that diamond also showed this effect. Some efforts were made by Fracastoro
and others, especially Gerolamo Cardano to develop explanations for this
phenomenon.
In contrast to astronomy, mechanics, and optics, which had been studied
quantitatively since antiquity, the start of ongoing qualitative and quantitative
research into electrical phenomena can be marked with the publication of De
Magnete by the English scientist William Gilbert in 1600. In this book, there
was a small section where Gilbert returned to the amber effect (as he called it)
in addressing many of the earlier theories, and coined the New
Latin word electrica (from ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron), the Greek word for amber).
The Latin word was translated into English as electrics. Gilbert is also credited
with the term electrical, while the term electricity came later, first attributed to
Sir Thomas Browne in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica from 1646. (For more
linguistic details see Etymology of electricity.) Gilbert hypothesized that this
amber effect could be explained by an effluvium (a small stream of particles
that flows from the electric object, without diminishing its bulk or weight) that
acts on other objects. This idea of a material electrical effluvium was
influential in the 17th and 18th centuries. It was a precursor to ideas
developed in the 18th century about "electric fluid" (Dufay, Nollet, Franklin)
and "electric charge".
In 1729 Stephen Gray was experimenting with static electricity, which he
generated using a glass tube. He noticed that a cork, used to protect the tube
from dust and moisture, also became electrified (charged). Further
experiments (e.g., extending the cork by putting thin sticks into it) showed—
for the first time—that electrical effluvia (as Gray called it) could be
transmitted (conducted) over a distance. Gray managed to transmit charge
with twine (765 feet) and wire (865 feet). Through these experiments, Gray
discovered the importance of different materials, which facilitated or hindered
the conduction of electrical effluvia. John Theophilus Desaguliers, who
repeated many of Gray's experiments, is credited with coining the
terms conductors and insulators to refer to the effects of different materials in
these experiments. Gray also discovered electrical induction (i.e., where charge
could be transmitted from one object to another without any direct physical
contact). For example, he showed that by bringing a charged glass tube close
to, but not touching, a lump of lead that was sustained by a thread, it was
possible to make the lead become electrified (e.g., to attract and repel brass
filings). He attempted to explain this phenomenon with the idea of electrical
effluvia.
Gray's discoveries introduced an important shift in the historical development
of knowledge about electric charge. The fact that electrical effluvia could be
transferred from one object to another, opened the theoretical possibility that
this property was not inseparably connected to the bodies that were electrified
by rubbing. In 1733 Charles François de Cisternay du Fay, inspired by Gray's
work, made a series of experiments (reported in Mémoires de l'Académie
Royale des Sciences), showing that more or less all substances could be
'electrified' by rubbing, except for metals and fluids and proposed that
electricity comes in two varieties that cancel each other, which he expressed in
terms of a two-fluid theory. When glass was rubbed with silk, du Fay said that
the glass was charged with vitreous electricity, and, when amber was rubbed
with fur, the amber was charged with resinous electricity. In contemporary
understanding, positive charge is now defined as the charge of a glass rod
after being rubbed with a silk cloth, but it is arbitrary which type of charge is
called positive and which is called negative. Another important two-fluid
theory from this time was proposed by Jean-Antoine Nollet (1745).
Up until about 1745, the main explanation for electrical attraction and
repulsion was the idea that electrified bodies gave off an effluvium. Benjamin
Franklin started electrical experiments in late 1746, and by 1750 had
developed a one-fluid theory of electricity, based on an experiment that
showed that a rubbed glass received the same, but opposite, charge strength as
the cloth used to rub the glass. Franklin imagined electricity as being a type of
invisible fluid present in all matter; for example, he believed that it was
the glass in a Leyden jar that held the accumulated charge. He posited that
rubbing insulating surfaces together caused this fluid to change location, and
that a flow of this fluid constitutes an electric current. He also posited that
when matter contained an excess of the fluid it was positively charged and
when it had a deficit it was negatively charged. He identified the
term positive with vitreous electricity and negative with resinous electricity
after performing an experiment with a glass tube he had received from his
overseas colleague Peter Collinson. The experiment had participant a charge
the glass tube and participant B receive a shock to the knuckle from the
charged tube. Franklin identified participant B to be positively charged after
having been shocked by the tube. There is some ambiguity about
whether William Watson independently arrived at the same one-fluid
explanation around the same time (1747). Watson, after seeing Franklin's
letter to Collinson, claims that he had presented the same explanation as
Franklin in spring 1747. Franklin had studied some of Watson's works prior to
making his own experiments and analysis, which was probably significant for
Franklin's own theorizing. One physicist suggests that Watson first proposed a
one-fluid theory, which Franklin then elaborated further and more
influentially. A historian of science argues that Watson missed a subtle
difference between his ideas and Franklin's, so that Watson misinterpreted his
ideas as being similar to Franklin's. In any case, there was no animosity
between Watson and Franklin, and the Franklin model of electrical action,
formulated in early 1747, eventually became widely accepted at that
time. After Franklin's work, effluvia-based explanations were rarely put
forward.
It is now known that the Franklin model was fundamentally correct. There is
only one kind of electrical charge, and only one variable is required to keep
track of the amount of charge.
Until 1800 it was only possible to study conduction of electric charge by using
an electrostatic discharge. In 1800 Alessandro Volta was the first to show that
charge could be maintained in continuous motion through a closed path.
In 1833, Michael Faraday sought to remove any doubt that electricity is
identical, regardless of the source by which it is produced. He discussed a
variety of known forms, which he characterized as common electricity
(e.g., static electricity, piezoelectricity, magnetic induction), voltaic electricity
(e.g., electric current from a voltaic pile), and animal electricity
(e.g., bioelectricity).
In 1838, Faraday raised a question about whether electricity was a fluid or
fluids or a property of matter, like gravity. He investigated whether matter
could be charged with one kind of charge independently of the other. He came
to the conclusion that electric charge was a relation between two or more
bodies, because he could not charge one body without having an opposite
charge in another body.
In 1838, Faraday also put forth a theoretical explanation of electric force,
while expressing neutrality about whether it originates from one, two, or no
fluids. He focused on the idea that the normal state of particles is to be non-
polarized, and that when polarized, they seek to return to their natural, non-
polarized state.
In developing a field theory approach to electrodynamics (starting in the mid-
1850s), James Clerk Maxwell stops considering electric charge as a special
substance that accumulates in objects, and starts to understand electric charge
as a consequence of the transformation of energy in the field. This pre-
quantum understanding considered magnitude of electric charge to be a
continuous quantity, even at the microscopic level.

The role of charge in static electricity

Static electricity refers to the electric charge of an object and the
related electrostatic discharge when two objects are brought together that are
not at equilibrium. An electrostatic discharge creates a change in the charge of
each of the two objects.

Electrification by friction
When a piece of glass and a piece of resin—neither of which exhibit any
electrical properties—are rubbed together and left with the rubbed surfaces in
contact, they still exhibit no electrical properties. When separated, they attract
each other.
A second piece of glass rubbed with a second piece of resin, then separated
and suspended near the former pieces of glass and resin causes these
phenomena:

● The two pieces of glass repel each other.

● Each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin.
● The two pieces of resin repel each other.
This attraction and repulsion is an electrical phenomenon, and the bodies that
exhibit them are said to be electrified, or electrically charged. Bodies may be
electrified in many other ways, as well as by friction. The electrical properties
of the two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the
two pieces of resin: The glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the
resin attracts.
If a body electrified in any manner whatsoever behaves as the glass does, that
is, if it repels the glass and attracts the resin, the body is said to
be virtuously electrified, and if it attracts the glass and repels the resin it is said
to be resinously electrified. All electrified bodies are either virtuously or
resinously electrified.
An established convention in the scientific community defines vitreous
electrification as positive, and resinous electrification as negative. The exactly
opposite properties of the two kinds of electrification justify our indicating
them by opposite signs, but the application of the positive sign to one rather
than to the other kind must be considered as a matter of arbitrary convention
—just as it is a matter of convention in mathematical diagram to reckon
positive distances towards the right hand.
No force, either of attraction or of repulsion, can be observed between an
electrified body and a body not electrified.

The role of charge in electric current

Electric current is the flow of electric charge through an object. The most
common charge carriers are the positively charged proton and the negatively
charged electron. The movement of any of these charged particles constitutes
an electric current. In many situations, it suffices to speak of the conventional
current without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in
the direction of the conventional current or by negative charges moving in the
opposite direction. This macroscopic viewpoint is an approximation that
simplifies electromagnetic concepts and calculations.
At the opposite extreme, if one looks at the microscopic situation, one sees
there are many ways of carrying an electric current, including: a flow of
electrons; a flow of electron holes that act like positive particles; and both
negative and positive particles (ions or other charged particles) flowing in
opposite directions in an electrolytic solution or a plasma.
Beware that, in the common and important case of metallic wires, the
direction of the conventional current is opposite to the drift velocity of the
actual charge carriers; i.e., the electrons. This is a source of confusion for
beginners.

Relativistic invariance
Aside from the properties described in articles about electromagnetism, charge
is a relativistic invariant. This means that any particle that has charge q  has
the same charge regardless of how fast it is travelling.
This property has been experimentally verified by showing that the charge of
one helium nucleus is the same as two deuterium nuclei (one proton and one
neutron bound together, but moving much more slowly than they would if
they were in a helium nucleus).

Electric Field
An electric field (sometimes E-field) is the physical field that surrounds
electrically charged particles and exerts force on all other charged particles in
the field, either attracting or repelling them. It also refers to the physical field
for a system of charged particles. Electric fields originate from electric charges,
or from time-varying magnetic fields. Electric fields and magnetic fields are
both manifestations of the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental
forces (or interactions) of nature.
Electric fields are important in many areas of physics, and are exploited
practically in electrical technology. In atomic physics and chemistry, for
instance, the electric field is the attractive force holding the atomic
nucleus and electrons together in atoms. It is also the force responsible
for chemical bonding between atoms that result in molecules.
The electric field is defined mathematically as a vector field that associates to
each point in space the (electrostatic or Coulomb) force per unit
of charge exerted on an infinitesimal positive test charge at rest at that
point. The derived SI units for the electric field are volts per meter (V/m),
exactly equivalent to Newton per coulomb (N/C).

Overview
Electric field of a positive point electric charge suspended over an infinite sheet of conducting
material. The field is depicted by electric field lines, lines which follow the direction of the electric
field in space
The electric field is defined at each point in space as the force (per unit charge)
that would be experienced by a vanishingly small positive test charge if held at
that point.   As the electric field is defined in terms of force, and force is
a vector (i.e. having both magnitude and direction), it follows that an electric
field is a vector field. Vector fields of this form are sometimes referred to
as force fields. The electric field acts between two charges similarly to the way
the gravitational field acts between two masses, as they both obey an inverse-
square law with distance. This is the basis for Coulomb's law, which states that,
for stationary charges, the electric field varies with the source charge and
varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source. This means
that if the source charge were doubled, the electric field would double, and if
you move twice as far away from the source, the field at that point would be
only one-quarter its original strength.
The electric field can be visualized with a set of lines whose direction at each
point is the same as the field's, a concept introduced by Michael
Faraday, whose term 'lines of force' is still sometimes used. This illustration has
the useful property that the field's strength is proportional to the density of the
lines. The field lines are the paths that a point positive charge would follow as
it is forced to move within the field, similar to trajectories that masses follow
within a gravitational field. Field lines due to stationary charges have several
important properties, including always originating from positive charges and
terminating at negative charges, they enter all good conductors at right angles,
and they never cross or close in on themselves. The field lines are a
representative concept; the field actually permeates all the intervening space
between the lines. More or fewer lines may be drawn depending on the
precision to which it is desired to represent the field. The study of electric
fields created by stationary charges is called electrostatics.
Faraday's law describes the relationship between a time-varying magnetic field
and the electric field. One way of stating Faraday's law is that the curl of the
electric field is equal to the negative time derivative of the magnetic field.  In
the absence of time-varying magnetic field, the electric field is therefore
called conservative (i.e. curl-free).  This implies there are two kinds of electric
fields: electrostatic fields and fields arising from time-varying magnetic fields.
 
 While the curl-free nature of the static electric field allows for a simpler
treatment using electrostatics, time-varying magnetic fields are generally
treated as a component of a unified electromagnetic field. The study of time
varying magnetic and electric fields is called electrodynamics.

Mathematical formulation
Electric fields are caused by electric charges, described by Gauss's law, and
time varying magnetic fields, described by Faraday's law of
induction. Together, these laws are enough to define the behaviour of the
electric field. However, since the magnetic field is described as a function of
electric field, the equations of both fields are coupled and together
form Maxwell's equations that describe both fields as a function of charges
and currents.

Electrostatics
In the special case of a steady state (stationary charges and currents), the
Maxwell-Faraday inductive effect disappears. The resulting two taken
together, are equivalent to Coulomb's law, which states that a particle with
electric charge  at position exerts a force on a particle with charge at
position  of:
1 q 1q ∘
F=
4 πE ∘ ( x 1−x ∘) ∧2

The Coulomb force on a charge of magnitude m q at any point in space is

equal to the product of the charge and the electric field at that point
F=QE

The units of the electric field in the SI system are Newton per coulomb (N/C),

or volts per meter (V/m); in terms of the SI base units they are kg⋅m⋅s−3⋅A−1.
Superposition principle

Due to the linearity of Maxwell's equations, electric fields satisfy

the superposition principle, which states that the total electric field, at a point,
due to a collection of charges is equal to the vector sum of the electric fields at
that point due to the individual charges. This principle is useful in calculating
the field created by multiple point charges. If charges are stationary in space at
points  in the absence of currents, the superposition principle says that the
resulting field is the sum of fields generated by each particle as described by
Coulomb's law:
Continuous Charge Distribution:
We know that the smallest form of charge we can obtain would be +e or –e i.e.
the charge of an electron or a proton, hence charges are
quantized. Continuous charge distribution means that all charges are closely
bound together having very less space between each other.

There are different ways in which charges can be distributed:

1. Linear charge distribution.

2. Surface charge distribution.
3. Volume charge distribution.

Linear charge distribution:

The linear charge distribution is when the charges get distributed uniformly
along a length, like around the circumference of a circle or along a straight
wire, linear charge distribution is denoted by the symbol λ.

λ = dq/dl and it is measured in Coulombs per meter.

Surface charge distribution:

When a charge is distributed over a specific area, like the surface of a disk, it is
called a surface charge distribution; it is denoted by the Greek letter σ.

The surface charge distribution is measured Coulombs per square meter or

Cm-2.

Volume charge distribution:

When a charge is distributed uniformly over a volume it is said to be volume
charge distribution, like distribution of charge inside a sphere, or a cylinder. It
is denoted by ρ.
Electromagnetic field
.

An electromagnetic field (also EM field or EMF) is a classical (i.e. non-

quantum) field produced by accelerating electric charges.[1] It is the field
described by classical electrodynamics and is the classical counterpart to
the quantized electromagnetic field tensor in quantum electrodynamics. The
electromagnetic field propagates at the speed of light (in fact, this field can be
identified as light) and interacts with charges and currents. Its quantum
counterpart is one of the four fundamental forces of nature (the others
are gravitation, weak interaction and strong interaction.)

The field can be viewed as the combination of an electric field and a magnetic

field. The electric field is produced by stationary charges, and the magnetic
field by moving charges (currents); these two are often described as the
sources of the field. The way in which charges and currents interact with the
electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz
force law.[2] The force created by the electric field is much stronger than the
force created by the magnetic field.[3]
From a classical perspective in the history of electromagnetism, the
electromagnetic field can be regarded as a smooth, continuous field,
propagated in a wavelike manner. By contrast, from the perspective
of quantum field theory, this field is seen as quantized; meaning that the free
quantum field (i.e. non-interacting field) can be expressed as the Fourier sum
of creation and annihilation operators in energy-momentum space while the
effects of the interacting quantum field may be analyzed in perturbation
theory via the S-matrix with the aid of a whole host of mathematical
techniques such as the Dyson series, Wick's theorem, correlation
functions, time-evolution operators, Feynman diagrams etc. Note that the
quantized field is still spatially continuous; its energy states however are
discrete (the field's energy states must not be confused with its energy values,
which are continuous; the quantum field's creation operators create
multiple discrete states of energy called photons.)
Dynamics

In the past, electrically charged objects were thought to produce two different,

unrelated types of field associated with their charge property.

The electric field (lines with arrows) of a charge (+) induces surface

charges (red and blue areas) on metal objects due to electrostatic induction.
An electric field is produced when the charge is stationary with respect to an
observer measuring the properties of the charge, and a magnetic field as well
as an electric field is produced when the charge moves, creating an electric
current with respect to this observer. Over time, it was realized that the
electric and magnetic fields are better thought of as two parts of a greater
whole—the electromagnetic field. Until 1820, when the Danish physicist H. C.
Ørsted showed the effect of electric current on a compass needle, electricity
and magnetism had been viewed as unrelated phenomena. In 1831, Michael
Faraday made the seminal observation that time-varying magnetic fields could
induce electric currents and then, in 1864, James Clerk Maxwell published his
famous paper "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field".
Once this electromagnetic field has been produced from a given charge
distribution, other charged or magnetised objects in this field may experience
a force. If these other charges and currents are comparable in size to the
sources producing the above electromagnetic field, then a new net
electromagnetic field will be produced. Thus, the electromagnetic field may be
viewed as a dynamic entity that causes other charges and currents to move,
and which is also affected by them. These interactions are described
by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law. This discussion ignores
the radiation reaction force. Note, however, this is not a statement of
the ontic status of the electromagnetic field as a physical entity, but merely
a methodological treatment; Indeed, the Standard Model predicates that the
electromagnetic field is an emergent phenomenon of the fundamental
particles, including photons.
Uniform fields
A uniform field is one in which the electric field is constant at every point. It
can be approximated by placing two conducting plates parallel to each other
and maintaining a voltage (potential difference) between them; it is only an
approximation because of boundary effects (near the edge of the planes,
electric field is distorted because the plane does not continue).

Illustration of the electric field between two parallel conductive plates of finite size (known as
a parallel plate capacitor). In the middle of the plates, far from any edges, the electric field is very
nearly uniform.
Assuming infinite planes, the magnitude of the electric field E is
−△ V
Ε=
d

where ΔV is the potential difference between the plates and d is the distance

separating the plates. The negative sign arises as positive charges repel, so a
positive charge will experience a force away from the positively charged plate,
in the opposite direction to that in which the voltage increases. In micro- and
nano-applications, for instance in relation to semiconductors, a typical
magnitude of an electric field is in the order of 106 V⋅m−1, achieved by
applying a voltage of the order of 1 volt between conductors spaced 1 µm
apart.
Applications
When an EM field (see electromagnetic tensor) is not varying in time, it may
be seen as a purely electrical field or a purely magnetic field, or a mixture of

both. However the general case of a static EM field with both electric and
magnetic components present, is the case that appears to most observers.
Observers who see only an electric or magnetic field component of a static EM
field, have the other (electric or magnetic) component suppressed, due to the
special case of the immobile state of the charges that produce the EM field in
that case. In such cases the other component becomes manifest in other
observer frames.
A consequence of this, is that any case that seems to consist of
a "pure" static electric or magnetic field, can be converted to an EM field, with
both E and M components present, by simply moving the observer into a frame
of reference which is moving with regard to the frame in which only the
"pure" electric or magnetic field appears. That is, a pure static electric field will
show the familiar magnetic field associated with a current, in any frame of
reference where the charge moves. Likewise, any new motion of a charge in a
region that seemed previously to contain only a magnetic field, will show that
the space now contains an electric field as well, which will be found to
produce an additional Lorentz force upon the moving charge.
Thus, electrostatics, as well as magnetism and magnetostatics, are now seen as
studies of the static EM field when a particular frame has been selected to
suppress the other type of field, and since an EM field with both electric and
magnetic will appear in any other frame, these "simpler" effects are merely the
observer's. The "applications" of all such non-time varying (static) fields are
discussed in the main articles linked in this section.
Time-varying EM fields in Maxwell’s equations
An EM field that varies in time has two "causes" in Maxwell's equations. One is
charges and currents (so-called "sources"), and the other cause for an E or M
field is a change in the other type of field (this last cause also appears in "free
space" very far from currents and charges).
An electromagnetic field very far from currents and charges (sources) is
called electromagnetic radiation (EMR) since it radiates from the charges and
currents in the source, and has no "feedback" effect on them, and is also not
affected directly by them in the present time (rather, it is indirectly produced
by a sequences of changes in fields radiating out from them in the past). EMR
consists of the radiations in the electromagnetic spectrum, including radio
waves, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma
rays. The many commercial applications of these radiations are discussed in
the named and linked articles.
A notable application of visible light is that this type of energy from the Sun
powers all life on Earth that either makes or uses oxygen.
A changing electromagnetic field which is physically close to currents and
charges (see near and far field for a definition of "close") will have
a dipole characteristic that is dominated by either a changing electric dipole,
or a changing magnetic dipole. This type of dipole field near sources is called
an electromagnetic near-field.
Changing electric dipole fields, as such, are used commercially as near-fields
mainly as a source of dielectric heating. Otherwise, they appear parasitically
around conductors which absorb EMR, and around antennas which have the
purpose of generating EMR at greater distances.
Changing magnetic dipole fields (i.e., magnetic near-fields) are used
commercially for many types of magnetic induction devices. These include
motors and electrical transformers at low frequencies, and devices such
as metal detectors and MRI scanner coils at higher frequencies. Sometimes
these high-frequency magnetic fields change at radio frequencies without
being far-field waves and thus radio waves; see RFID tags. See also near-field
communication. Further uses of near-field EM effects commercially may be
found in the article on virtual photons, since at the quantum level, these fields
are represented by these particles. Far-field effects (EMR) in the quantum
picture of radiation are represented by ordinary photons.

Bibliography
1. Roche, John (2016). "Introducing electric fields". Physics Education. 
2. Purcell, Edward M.; Morin, David J. (2013). Electricity and
Magnetism (3rd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
3. Richard Feynman (1970). The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vo
4. International Bureau of Weights and Measure
5. Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd Edition), D.J. Griffiths, Pearson
Education, Dorling Kindersley, 2007,
6. https://www.Wikipedia.org
7. https://www.Byjus.com
8. https://www.physicsclassroom.com
● https://www.khanacademy.org

● https://www.britannica.com

● https://openstax.org

● https://www.accessscience.com

● https://www.electronics-notes.com

● https://ncert.nic.in

● https://www.toppr.com

● https://openpress.usask.ca

Index
1 Introduction(Electric Charges & Fields)

2 ElECTRIC CHARGES

3 Overview

4 Units

5 History

6 Role of charge in Static Electricity

7 Electrification by Friction

8 Role of charge in Electric Current

9 Relativistic Invariance

10 ELECTRIC FIELD

11 Overview

12 Mathematical Formulation

13 Electrostatics
14 Superposition Principle

15 Continuous Charge Distribution

16 Electro-Magnetic Field

17 Dynamics

18 Bibliography
Assessment Sheet

❖ External Examiner
Signature:

❖ Internal Examiner
Signature:

Physics Project
Electric Charges
AND Fields

Shridansh Tripathi
XII-A