COULOMB’S LAW

The electricity developed on objects, when they are rubbed with each other is called
frictional electricity. The electricity charges so developed cannot move from one part of
the part of the object to the other part. Frictional electricity is also known as static
electricity or electrostatics.

TWO KINDS OF ELCTRIC CHARGES

Electric charges are of two types

The name of the object, which acquires

Positive charge Negative charge
Glass rod Silk cloth
Fur or catskin Ebonite rod
Woolen cloth Amber
Woolen cloth Rubber Shoes
Woolen cloth Plastic object

ELECTRIC CHARGE
The additional property of protons and electrons, which give rises to electric force
between them, is called electric charge. Electric charge is a scalar quantity. A proton
posses positive charge +e, while an electron posses an equal negative charge –e, where
e = 1.6 × 10-19 coulomb

ADDITIVE NATURE OF CHARGE

The total electric charge on an object is equal to the algebraic sum of all the electric
charges disturbed on the different parts of the object. If q 1, q2, q3, …… are electric
charges present on different parts of an object, then total electric charge on the object,
q = q1 + q2 + q3 + ……

~1~
It may be pointed out that while taking the algebraic sum, the sign (positive or negative)
of the electric charges must be taken into account.
The additive property of mass and electric charge differs on following two accounts:
1. The masses of the particles constituting an object are always positive, whereas the
charges distributed on the different parts of the object may be positive or
negative.
2. The total mass of an object is always non – zero, whereas the total charge on the
object may e positive, zero or negative.
QUANTIZATION OF CHARGE
The fact that all observable charges are always some integral multiple of elementary
charge e (= ± 1.6 × 10-19 C) is known as quantization of charge.
Mathematically, the charge on any object must always be equal to

q = ± ne,

where n is an integer. Further, the charge on an object can be increased or decreased in

steps of e.

CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
It states that for an isolated system, the net charge always remains constant. In any
physical process, the charge may get transferred from one part of the system to another,
but net charge will always remain the same. In other words, charge can neither be created
nor destroyed.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

The following are a few important properties of electric charge:

1. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other .
2. The magnitude of elementary negative or positive charge is same and is equal to
1.6 × 10-19 C.
3. The electric charge is additive in nature. It implies that total charge on an object is
algebraic sum of the charges located at different points in the object.
4. The charge is quantized i.e. charge carried by a charged object is equal to ± ne,
where n is an integer.
5. The electric charge of a system is always conserved.
6. Unlike mass, the electric charge on an object is not affected by the motion of the
object.

~2~
COULOMB’S LAW IN ELECTROSTATICS
q1 q2
F F
r
A B

It states that two point charges attract or repel each other with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.
The force is repulsive, if the charges are alike and attractive in case of unlike charges.
Further, electrostatic force between two charges is central in nature. It may be pointed
out that Coulomb’s law in electrostatic holds for stationary charges. Further, the two
charges should be points in size.
Consider that two charges q1 and q2 are present at points A and B at a distance r apart
as shown in figure. Then, force between the two charges,
F ∝ q1 q2 …… (1.01)
1
∝ …… (1.02)
𝑟2
Combining the equations (1.01) and (1.02), we have
𝑞1 𝑞2
F∝
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
Or F=k …… (1.03)
𝑟2
Where k is constant of proportionality. Its value depends upon the nature of the medium
in which the two charges are located and also the system of units adopted to measure F,
q1, q2 and r.
In SI, when the two charges are located in vacuum of air,
1
k=
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊
where 𝜀𝜊 is called absolute permittivity of free space*. Therefore, from equation (1.03),
the force between two charges located in air or vacuum is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Fvac = . …… (1.04)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟2
The absolute permittivity of free space is measured to be
𝜀𝜊 = 8.854 × 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2
1 1
∴ = = 9 × 109 N m2 C-2
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 4 𝜋 × 8.854 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2
Hence, the equation (1.04) may be written as

~3~
 𝑞1 𝑞2
Fvac = 9 × 109 × (in Newton) …… (1.05)
𝑟2
UNIT OF CHARGE
In SI, force between two charges q1 and q2 held at a distance r apart in vacuum is given by
𝑞1 𝑞2
Fvac = 9 × 109 ×
𝑟2
Suppose that q1 = q2 = q; r = 1m and Fvac = 9 × 109 N
𝑞 ×𝑞
Then, 9 × 109 = 9 × 109 ×
12
2
Or q =1
Or q = ± 1 coulomb (C)
therefore, one coulomb is that charge which repels an equal and similar charge with a
force of 9 × 109 N, when placed in vacuum (or air) at a distance of one meter from it.
NOTE:
1. In electrostatic cgs system, the unit of charge is known as electrostatic unit of
charge (e.s.u. of charge). It is also called statcoulomb (Stat C)
2. In electromagnetic cgs system, the unit of charge is known as electromagnetic unit
of charge (e.m.u. of charge)
1
1C = e.m.u. of charge
10
RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY (DIELECTRIC CONSTANT)
The force between two charges q1 and q2 located at a distance r in a medium may be
expressed as
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Fmed = . , …… (1.06)
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2
where 𝜀 is called absolute permittivity of the medium.
The equation (1.04) gives force between the charges q 1 and q2, when they are placed at a
distance r apart in vacuum. Dividing equation (1.04) by (1.06), we have
𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐 1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝜀
= . ⁄ . = …… (1.07)
𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑 4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2 𝜀𝜊
𝜀
The ratio is denoted by 𝜀𝑟, called relative permittivity of the medium w.r.t. vacuum.
𝜀𝜊
It is also denoted by k, called dielectric constant of the medium. Therefore, equation
(1.07) gives
𝜀 𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐
𝜀𝑟 (or K) = = …… (1.08)
𝜀𝜊 𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑
Thus, relative permittivity or dielectric constant of a medium may be defined as the
ratio of the force between two charges placed at a certain distance apart in air to the
force between the same two charges placed in the same distance apart n that medium.

~4~
 Setting 𝜀 = 𝜀𝜊 𝜀𝑟 or 𝜀 = 𝜀𝜊 K in equation (1.06), we have
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Fmed = .
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝜀𝑟 𝑟2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Fmed = . …… (1.09)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝐾 𝑟2

COULOMB ’S LAW IN VECTOR FORM

→ q1 q2 →
𝐹12 𝐹21
A 𝑟̂
12 𝑟̂
21
B
r
Consider that two like charges q1 and q2 are present at points A and B in vacuum at a
distance r apart. The two charges will exert equal repulsive forces on each other.
Let 𝐹 12 be the force on charge q1 due to charge q2 and 𝐹12 be the force on charge q2 due
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
to charge q1
According to Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of force on charge q 1 due to q2 (or on charge
q2 due to q1) is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 | = |𝐹21 | = . …… (1.10)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟2
Let 𝑟̂
12 be a unit vector pointing from charge q1 and q2 and 𝑟̂
12 , a unit vector pointing from

charge q2 to q1. As the force vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐹12 is along the direction of unit vector 𝑟̂12 , we have
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑟̂
12 …… (1.11)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟2

Also, as the force vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 12, it follows that

𝐹12 is along the direction of unit vector 𝑟̂
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹21 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑟̂
12 …… (1.12)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟2
The equation (1.11) and (1.12) express Coulomb’s law in vector form.

FORCE BETWEEN TWO CHARGES IN TERMS OF THEIR

POSITION VECTORS

To express force between two point charges in terms

of their position vectors, consider a co-ordinate frame
of reference OXYZ. Suppose that the two point
charges q1 and q2 are present in space at the
points A and B, whose position vectors are 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 and 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 .

~5~
Join two charges q1 and q2 by a straight line. If the distance between the two charges is
denoted by r and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟21 is unit vector from charge q2 to q1, then force on charge q1 due to q2
is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑟̂
21
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟2
The above, equation can be rewritten as
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . (𝑟 𝑟̂
21 ) …… (1.13)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟3
From triangle law of addition of vectors, we have
𝑂𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 or 𝐵𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐴 - ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵
Or 𝑟 𝑟̂ 𝑟1 - 𝑟⃗⃗⃗2
21 = ⃗⃗⃗ (∵ 𝐵𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟 𝑟̂
21 )
Also, r = |𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 − ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 |
In equation (1.13), setting 𝑟1 - 𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 and r = |⃗⃗⃗𝑟1 − 𝑟⃗⃗⃗2|, we have
21 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟 𝑟̂
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .| (⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 − 𝑟⃗⃗⃗2) …… (1.14)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟 𝑟2 |3
⃗⃗⃗1 − ⃗⃗⃗
Similarly, it can be obtained that the force on charge q2 due to q1 is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹21 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . |⃗⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 − ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1) …… (1.15)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟1 |3
𝑟2 − ⃗⃗⃗

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
The principle of superposition states that when
a number of charges are intersecting, the total force on
a given charge is the vector sum of the individual
forces exerted on the given charge by all
the other charges. The force between any two
charges is not affected by the presence of other charges.
Consider that n point charges q1, q2, q3 …qn are disturbed in space in a discrete
manner. Te charges are interacting with each other. Let us find the total force on the
charge, say q1 due to all other remaining charges. If the charges q 2, q3 … qn exert

𝐹12 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
forces ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹13 ,…… ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1𝑛 on the charge q1, then according to principle of superposition, the
total force on charge q1 is given by

𝐹1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹13 + ……… + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹12 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹1𝑛 ....... (1.16)
If the distance between the charges q1 and q2 is denoted as r12 ; and 𝑟̂
12 is unit
vector from charge q2 to q1, then
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑟̂
21
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟12 2

~6~
 Similarly, the force on charge q1 due to other charges is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞3
𝐹13 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑟̂
31
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟13 2
…………………………………………
…………………………………………
1 𝑞1 𝑞𝑛
And 𝐹1𝑛 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑟̂
𝑛1
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟1𝑛 2
𝐹12 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence, in the equation (1.16), substituting for⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹13 , ………… ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1𝑛 , the total force on
the charge q1 due to all other charges is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞𝑛
𝐹1 =
⃗⃗⃗ ( 𝑟̂
21 + 𝑟̂
31 + ⋯ 𝑟̂
𝑛1 ) ……… (1.17)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟12 2 𝑟13 2 𝑟1𝑛 2
The same procedure can be adopted for finding the force on any other charge due to
remaining charges of the group of n charges. For example, force on charge q 2 due to all
other charges is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 𝐹21 + 𝐹 23 + ……… + 𝐹2𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞𝑛
i.e. ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 =
𝐹 ( 2
𝑟̂
12 + 2
𝑟̂
32 + ⋯ 𝑟̂
𝑛2 )
4 𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟21 𝑟23 𝑟2𝑛 2

CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE

The continuous distribution of charge may be one dimensional, two dimensional or
three dimensional. Accordingly, the distribution of charge is called linear charge
distribution, surface charge distribution and volume charge distribution
respectively.
Linear charge density
When charge is distributed along a line (straight or curved),
the charge distribution is called linear. Diagram shows the
uniform distribution of charge q over the length L of a straight rod.
Then, linear charge density is defined as
𝑞
𝜆=
𝐿
Its unit is coulomb metre-1 (C m-1)
Surface charge density.

When charge is distributed over a surface (plane or curved), the charge distributed is
called surface charge distribution. Diagram shows uniform distribution of charge q over a
plane surface of area A. Then, surface charge distribution is defined as

~7~
 𝑞
𝜎=
𝐴
Its unit is coulomb meter -2 (C m-2)

+++++++++
Area = A
+++q+++++
++++++

Volume charge density

When charge is distributed over the volume of an object, it is called volume charge
distribution. Diagram shows the uniform distribution of charge q over the volume V of a
spherical object. Then, volume charge density is defined as
𝑞 Volume = V
𝜌= q
𝑉 ++ +++
-3 -3
Its unit is coulomb meter (Cm ) +
+ +++
+++++
+++++++ +
+++++++ +
+
+ + ++ + +
+
+
+

~8~