Electricity (Lecture –1)

Charge:
Charge is the foundation for electricity and is an intrinsic characteristic of the fundamental
particles which makes up matter. Charge is denoted by q and the unit of charge is coulomb or
simply C.

Classification of charge:
Charges are classified into two groups, viz-
(i) Positive charge and
(ii) Negative charge

Nature of charge: Charges shows two nature depending on their types, viz-
(i) Opposite charges attract each other. For example a negative charge and a positive charge
attract each other.
(ii) Similar charges repel each other. For example two negative charges or two positive
charges repel each other.

Medium:
The substance through which charge or electricity flows or tend to flow is called Medium.
Medium is of three types, viz (i) Conductor, (ii) Semi-conductor and (iii) Non-conductor or
Insulator

(i) Conductor: The substance through which electricity or charge can flow easily is called
conductor.It is because there are a large number of free electrons available in a conductor.
Examples- all metal, e.g. copper, gold, iron etc., human body, acids, bases etc. Electrical
conductivity of conductors decreases with increasing temperature.
(ii) Semi-conductor: The substance through which electricity or charge can flow partially is
called semi-conductor. Examples: germanium, silicon, gallium-arsenide etc. Semi-conductors
are extensively used in constructing electronic instruments. Electrical conductivity of semi-
conductors increases with increasing temperature.

(iii) Non-conductor or Insulator: The substance through which electricity or charge does not
flow is called non-conductor or insulator. Examples: rubber, glass, ebonite, wax, dry wood etc.

Point charge: When the size of the charged body is extremely small, then that charged body
is called point charge. Those charged bodies are so small compared to the distances between
them that they may be considered as mathematical points.

Coulomb’s law: At a particular medium, the magnitude of attractive or repulsive force

between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of distance between the charges. The force acts along the straight
line joining the two charges.

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Explanation: Let q1 and q2 be two point charges and let r be the distance between them [Fig.
1]. If they assert force of magnitude F, then according to Coulomb’s law;
F ∝ q1 q2 , when r is constant
and F∝ when q1 and q2 are constant.
When r, q1 and q2 all vary, then
F∝
Or, F = k ……………… (1)
Here k is proportionality constant. Its value depends on the nature of the medium and the units
of F, q1 , q2 and r.
In S. I. or M. K. S. unit,
k= , where 0 (Epsilon not)is the permittivity of air or vacuum.
In air or vacuum, the Coulomb’s law is written as,
F= ……………… (2)
In S. I. unit, F expressed in Newton (N), charge in Coulomb (C), and distance in meter (m), so
the experimental value of 0 is
-12 2 -1 -2
0 = 8.854× 10 CN m
and = = 9 ×109 Nm2 C-2

Hence, from equation (2) we get,

F = 9 ×109 ……………… (3)

Mathematical Problems :
Exercise 1: Determine the force existing between two free electrons spaced 1 m apart.

Solution:
We know, Given that,
F= Charge, q1 = q2 = 1.6 ×10-19 C
Distance, r = 10-10 m
( )
( ) = 9 ×109 Nm2 C-2
or, F = 9 ×109 Nm2 C-2 × ( )
F=?
∴ F = 2.3 ×10-8 N

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Exercise 2: Two equal and opposite charges of magnitude 5 1 C are at a distance of ‘r’
apart such that their force of attraction is 4.5 N. What will be value of ‘r’?

Solution: Given that,

We know, Charge, q1 = q2 = 5 ×105 C
F=
Force, F = 4.5 N
or, r2 =
= 9 ×109 Nm2 C-2
or, r = √
Distance, r = ?
) )
( (
or, r = √ 1
∴ r = 2.23 ×1010 m

Exercise3: In a hydrogen atom there is a positively charged proton in the nucleus and
negatively charged electron moves around the nucleus in an orbit. The electrostatic force
between the electron and the proton becomes the centripetal force that retains the electron in
the orbit. Calculate the radius of the orbit if the centripetal force is equal to 8.2×1 N.

Solution: Given that, Force F=8.2×1 N.

Charge, = 1.6×1 C
Radius of the orbit,r=?

We Know that, F=

Or, 8.2×1 = 9×1

Or, = 9×1

∴r= 5.3×1 m

Exercise4: Calculate the magnitude of the electrostatic forces between an electron and proton
in a hydrogen atom (the radius of the electron's orbit is about 0.053 nm)
Solution:Given that, Charge = =1 1 C
Distance r=0.053nm= 3 1 m

and =9.0 × 109 Nm2 /C2

We know that, F=

( )
Or, F=9.0 × 109 ( )
−8
∴ F=8.2 × 10 N

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Exercise5: Calculate the magnitude of the electrostatic forces between two protons in a helium
nucleus (the separation between them is about 1.2 fm)

Solution:
Here, Charge, = =1 1 C
Distance r=1.2 fm =1.2 × 10−15 m
=9.0 × 109 Nm2 /C2

We know that, F=
( )
Or, F=9.0 × 109 × ( )

∴ F=160 N

Electric Field:
When electric charge is placed at some point in space, this establishes everywhere a state of
electric stress, which is called an Electric field.
Electric field is measured by the amount of force of attraction or repulsion on a test unit
charge by the charge which establishes the field.

The Electric Field strength ⃗⃗ :

If we place a small body carrying a test charge (positive) at a point of an electric filed and
we measure the electrical force acts on that body. The electric field strength ⃗ at that point is
defined as,
⃗
⃗⃗ = ……………… (1)

Or, = qo ⃗ ……………… (2)

According to Coulomb’s law, the equation (1) can be written as,

E=

∴E=

TheS. I.unit of electric field is Newton/Coulomb (N/Cor NC-1 ).

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Exercise: 1
The electric strength of air is about 3.0 × 106 N/C which means that if the electric field exceeds
this value, sparking will occur. What is the largest charge a 0.50 cm. radius sphere can hold if
sparking is not to occur in the air surrounding it?
Solution:
For a point outside a sphere, all the charge on the surface can be considered to be located at the
center of the sphere. Thus the value of q can be obtained from the relation.
We know, Here,
E= Electric strength, E = 3.0 × 106 N/C
or, 3.0 × 106 N/C = )
Radius, r = 0.50 cm = 5 × 10-3 m
(
∴q 8.34 × 10-9 C Charge, q = ?

2. What is the magnitude of the electric field strength E such that an electron, placed in the
field, would experience an electric force equal to its weight?
Solution:
We know the electric field strength,
E=F/q0,
where F=mg
Now we get,
E=mg/q0
= (9×10-31 kg) (9.8 m/sec2 ) / (1.6×10-19 coul)
=5.6 ×10 -11 N/coul. Ans:

Electric potential: Electric potential at any point is equal to the work done per positive charge
in carrying it from infinity to that point in electric field.
It is denoted by V. It is a scalar quantity. Mathematically, it can be written as

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Electric Flux
Electric flux is the rate of flow of the electric field through a given area. Electric flux is
proportional to the number of electric field lines going through a virtual surface. If the electric
field E is uniform, the electric flux passing through a surface of vector area S is

Figure: Electric Flux

Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s law states that the flux of the electric field E through any closed surface is equal to
1/εo times the total charge enclosed by the surface.
Mathematically
ΦE = q
This can be written by using integral form

Uniform electric field: The space around a charged body where another charge experiences a
force of attraction or repulsion is known as the electric field of that charged body. If the
magnitude and direction of the electric field is same everywhere, then the field is called
uniform electric field. It is represented by the parallel lines of force of equal spacing as
following fig:

Capacitor:
A capacitor or condenser is a device for storing charge. A capacitor is an
electrical device consisting of two conductors separated by an insulator
or dielectric medium (including air) and carrying equal and opposite
charges.

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Types of capacitors according to shape
The more commonly used capacitors are,
i. A parallel plate capacitor
ii. A cylindrical capacitor
iii. A spherical capacitor

Capacitance:
The capacitance of capacitor is defined as the amount of charge required to increase a
unit potential difference between its plates.

If q is the charge of the plates and V is the potential difference between the plates then the
capacitance of a capacitor is given by,
C= ……………..(1)
The unit of capacitor is Coulomb/ Volt or farad (small unit – micro farad,µf).

Unit of Capacitance
As can be seen from equation (1) that, the SI unit of capacitance is Coulomb/ Volt.The special
name of this unit isfarad (F).

1 farad
1 farad (1F) = 1 Coulomb per Volt (1 C/V). So if a potential difference of 1 Volt is needed to
give a capacitor a charge of 1 Coulomb, then the capacitance of the capacitor is said to be 1
farad.
The farad is a large unit. Submultiples of the farad, such as:
millifarad (1 mF = 10-3 F)
microfarad (1 µF = 10-6 F)
nanofarad (1 nF = 10-9 F)
and the picofarad (1µµF or 1 pF = 10-12 F) etc.

Energy stored in a charge capacitor

The energy in a charged capacitor is the amount of work done in charging it. Suppose V is the
potential difference between the plates of the capacitor of capacitance C. The charge Q is
given by, Q = CV
There is charge Q on one plate and – Q on the other. Let us increase the charge from Q to
Q+dQ by transferring a positive charge dQ from the negative to the positive plate, working
against the potential difference V. The work that has to be done is given by,

dW = VdQ = dQ
Therefore, to charge the capacitor starting from the uncharged state to the final charge say, Q
2
W=∫ = = CV

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If the energy is denoted by U then we can write U=W.

So, U=
CV2
The above equation is known as equation of energy stored in a charged capacitor.

Exercise:
1. 2000 V potential is applied to a capacitor of 1.2 μF. What is the amount of energy
stored is the capacitor?
Solution
We know, Here,
2
U = CV Potential, V = 2000 Volt
2 Capacitance, C = 1.2 μF = 1.2 × 10-6 F
or,U = ×1.2 × 10-6 × (2000)
Stored energy, U = ?
∴U = 2.4 J

Equivalent capacitance:
(a) When capacitors connected in series:
Figure (a) shows three capacitors connected in series to a battery B, maintaining a potential
difference V volt across the left and
right of the series combination. The potential differences produced across the individual
capacitors are V1 , V2 , and V3 , the corresponding capacitances being C 1 , C2 , and C3
respectively. The connection is said to be series if V1 + V2 + V3 = V.

Although the potential differences produced across the capacitors are different (depending on
the individual capacitances), each capacitor has the same charge q, irrespective of its
capacitance.
For individual circuit element we can write,
V1 = , V2 = , and V3 =
The potential difference of the series combination is then
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = q ( )……………………..(1)
Let us replace the combination by an equivalent capacitor of equivalent capacitance C eq , such
that the battery would move the same amount of charge. Or,

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 V= …………………..(2)
Combining equation (1) and (2) we obtain,
= q( )

or, = ( )………….(3)
Thus the equivalent capacitance is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitances.

(b) When capacitors connected in parallel:

Figure (c) shows three capacitors connected in parallel to battery B. The terminals of the
battery are wired directly to the plates of the three capacitors. So each capacitor experienced
same potential difference V. But the total charge q that is delivered by the battery to the
combination is shared among the capacitors.
For each capacitor we can write,
q1 = C1 V, q2 = C2 V, and q3 = C3 V
where q1, q2, andq3 are the charges stored in the
first, second and the third capacitors
respectively and C 1, C2, and C3 are the
corresponding capacitances of the capacitors.
The total charge on the parallel combination is
then, q = q1 + q2 + q3 =C1 V + C2 V + C3 V
= (C1 + C2 + C3 )V
The equivalent capacitance, with the same total charge q and the applied potential difference V
as the combination is then,
( 1 2 3)
Ceq = = =(C1+ C2 +C3) ………….(4)
Thus the equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination is simply the sum of the
capacitances of the individual capacitors.

Exercise: 1
Three capacitors have a capacity of 5 µF, 3 mF and 4 F are connected in series. Calculate their
equivalent capacitance.
Solution:
We know, Here,
= Capacitance, C 1 = 5 µF = 5 × 10-6 F
Capacitance, C 2 = 3 mF = 3 × 10-3 F
= Capacitance, C 3 = 4 F
Equivalent capacitance, C s= ?

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 = 2 × 105

∴Cs = = 5 ×10-6 F

Exercise: 2
Find the equivalent capacitance of the combination as illustrated in the following figure.
Assume C1 = 10 µF, C2 = 5 µF, C3 = 4 µF and V = 100 volts

Solution:
C1 and C2 are connected in parallel. Their equivalent capacitance C p = C1 + C2 = 10 + 5 = 15
µF
Now, considering Cp connected in series withC3 , we get,
= = = =
∴C = µF = 3.2 µF

Uses of capacitors at a glance:

1. Capacitors are used for tuning in telegraph, telephone and radio receivers.
2. Capacitors are used for controlling the speed of electric fans.
3. Capacitors are used for coupling in amplifiers.
4. It is used for charging and discharging in electric circuit.
5. It is used for d.c. blocking in electric circuits.
6. Capacitors are used in filter circuits.
7. Capacitors are used in oscillators.
8. Besides, in order to store charges and for different electric works capacitor are used.

Current:

The amount of flow of charge per unit time is known as current. If a net charge q passes
through any cross section of the conductor in time t, the current is given by

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I=

The unit of current is Ampere.

Ohm's law:
The current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points.

If V is the potential difference between two ends of a conductor AB

and I is the current flow in it, then
I∞V
I = GV (where, G is the proportionality constant called conductivity.)

I= V

IR = V
V = IR
Where, R is known as resistance and it is inverse of conductivity. That means if the resistance
of the conductor increases the conductivity decreases. The flow of current decreases.

Note: Current and resistance in a simple circuit can be determined by using Ohm’s law. But if
the circuit is complex then Ohm’s law is not sufficient. For this reason, Kirchhoff’s two laws
are used to calculate current and resistance in a complex circuit. Of course, these laws can also
be used in simple circuits.

Series combination of resistors:

Suppose the values of three resistors are respectively , and . These are connected in
such a way as that same current flows through each. This combination of resistors is series
combination. The equivalent resistance of the resistors is to be found out.

Let the potential difference between the two ends of resistors are respectively , and .
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If the potential difference between the two ends of the combination is Vs , then

Vs = + + ………… (1)
But if the equivalent resistance of the combination is Rs , then from ohm’s law
We get, VS = iRS from equation number (1) we get
iRs = i +i +i
iRs = i ( + + )
Rs = + +
If there are n number of resistors connected in series
Rs = + + ……………… + Rn

Parallel combination of resistors:

Suppose, the values of three resistors are respectively , and . Here potential
difference is V.

Here, current i after reaching at point A, gets divided into , and flowing through
respective resistors , and reach at point B and after combining becomes the main
current i.
i= + + …………………… (1)
From the ohm’s law, we get
= , = and =

If the equivalent resistance of the circuit is RP, then from ohm’s law

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i=

Now, inserting the values of , and in equation (1)

= + +

If the number of resistors is n

= + + ………. +

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