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Derivative, maxima and minima in a graphical context

Article  in  International Journal of Mathematical Education · May 2012

DOI: 10.1080/0020739X.2012.690896

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Derivative, maxima and minima in a

graphical context
a a
Antonio Rivera-Figueroa & Juan Carlos Ponce-Campuzano
a
Mathematics Education Department, Centre for Research and
Advanced Studies, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Col.
San Pedro Zacatenco, Mexico City, 07360 Mexico
Version of record first published: 22 Jun 2012.

To cite this article: Antonio Rivera-Figueroa & Juan Carlos Ponce-Campuzano (2012): Derivative,
maxima and minima in a graphical context, International Journal of Mathematical Education in
Science and Technology, 44:2, 284-299

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 284 Classroom Notes

Derivative, maxima and minima in a graphical context

Antonio Rivera-Figueroa* and Juan Carlos Ponce-Campuzano

Mathematics Education Department, Centre for Research and Advanced Studies,

Av. Instituto Polite´cnico Nacional 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Mexico City,
07360 Mexico
(Received 24 September 2011)

A deeper learning of the properties and applications of the derivative for

the study of functions may be achieved when teachers present lessons
within a highly graphic context, linking the geometric illustrations to
formal proofs. Each concept is better understood and more easily retained
when it is presented and explained visually using graphs. In this article, we
explore the conditions of necessity or sufficiency of the criteria for
determining the maxima and minima of a function. The implications for the
teaching of derivatives and functions in undergraduate courses are
discussed in light of our analysis of textbooks.
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Keywords: undergraduate courses; calculus; derivative; critical point,

maxima; minima

1. Introduction
The concept of the derivative has a geometric origin. While the theory of the
derivative can be constructed with few geometric illustrations or even without them,
geometric figures are a source of ideas for formal proofs. The formal treatment of the
derivative and their geometric interpretations are inseparable in the development of
the theory and in the process of understanding.
In undergraduate calculus courses, the learning of differential calculus presents a
myriad of difficulties for students. The literature confirms what many teaching
calculus experience, students can acquire the skills for performing calculations while
maintaining shallow understanding and, in some cases, fundamental misconceptions
(see, e.g. [1–6]).
In the middle of the last century, Prenowitz [7] attributed the difficulties of the
learning of calculus to the concepts, techniques and applications often involved. For
Prenowitz, novice calculus students experience difficulties when they try to
understand and apply the concepts of calculus for solving problems. More recent
research attributes the origin of these difficulties in teaching itself, that is, the
performance of the teacher [8].
A deeper learning of the properties and applications of the derivative to the study
of functions may be achieved when teachers present lessons within a highly graphic
context, linking the geometric illustrations to formal proofs. In fact, when students
are first learning the derivative and its application to functions, they often lack the
mathematical maturity to grasp the formal proofs of the results, for example the
mean value theorem. For this reason, the teaching of calculus, at the undergraduate

*Corresponding author. Email: arivera@cinvestav.mx

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2012.690896
 International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 285

Figure 1. The relationship between the sign of the derivative and the monotonicity of a
function.

level, should rely heavily on graphics specially designed to communicate the ideas
that we wish to teach.
An example of a theorem, whose proof is based on the mean value theorem,
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states that if the derivative of a function f is positive (negative) on an interval, then the
function f is increasing (decreasing).
The relationship between the sign of the derivative and the monotonicity of a
function (increasing or decreasing) are interpreted, in textbooks, with images like the
ones showed in Figure 1 (see, e.g. [9–14]).
The converse of the above theorem is false, a counterexample is the function
f ðxÞ ¼ x3 . This function is not only increasing but strictly increasing, that is, the next
implication is true

x1 , x2 2 R, x1 4 x2 ) f ðx1 Þ 4 f ðx2 Þ:

However, it is false that f 0 ðxÞ 4 0 for every real number x, since f 0 ð0Þ ¼ 0.
A converse version of this theorem is: if a function is increasing and differentiable
on an interval, then its derivative is non-negative. One difference between the two
theorems is that the latter can be proved directly using the definition of the
derivative, while the former requires the mean value theorem. The next statements
incorporate both of them (the text above the arrow indicates on what the proof is
based):
Mean Value Theorem
f 0 ðxÞ 4 0 on I ) f increasing on I
definition of derivative 0
f increasing and differentiable on I ) f ðxÞ  0 on I:

Of course, the following implications are valid:

f 0 ðxÞ  0 on I ) f increasing on I
f 0 ðxÞ 4 0 on I ) f strictily increasing on I:

This logical–conceptual difference concerning the nature of the demonstration

cannot be perceived in a geometric instruction. Notwithstanding, the graphics are
highly recommended for the understanding of various concepts and results about the
derivative. We must be aware of their means and limitations and we must be careful
when we do interpret the graphs of functions.
 286 Classroom Notes

Interpreting graphically a result concerning the derivative can lead to mistaken

knowledge. In general, the graphs we can draw with pencil or even visualize are far
from showing the generality of the geometric and analytic situations. In practice, the
particular graphic representations on which we rely to interpret and assimilate the
results of the derivative may limit our understanding and thus lead us to formulate
invalid results.
Misconceptions held by students can be attributed to misconceptions taught by
teachers or to those teachers with accurate knowledge but who are not reflecting on
how students are learning. For example, it is common that for finding the maxima
and minima values of a function, the students proceed to find the critical points of
the function, that is, the points where the derivative vanishes. Usually, when a
student applies the second derivative criterion and finds that it vanishes at the critical
point, he or she then concludes that there is an inflection point. They do not consider
the possibility that even if the second derivative is equal to zero at the critical point,
the function could have a maximum or a minimum. This conclusion falls within a
misconception that at a critical point one of the three things happens: (i) there is a
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minimum, (ii) there is a maximum or (iii) there is an inflection point. However,

inflection points have nothing to do with the fact that there are, or are not, critical
points.
Why do students associate inflection points with critical points? This is because
usually in the textbooks it is common to find the function f ðxÞ ¼ x3 as an example to
show that the condition f 0 ðx0 Þ ¼ 0 is not sufficient to assure that this function has
either a maximum or a minimum. In this case the derivative is given by f 0 ðxÞ ¼ 3x2 so
that it vanish at x ¼ 0, but it has neither a maximum nor a minimum at this point.
On the other hand, it is common to find too, the observation that at this point the
function has an inflection point. This may lead students to believe that the inflection
points should be looked for at the critical points, that is, at points where the
derivative vanishes.
Are there functions such that at some critical point have neither a maximum nor
a minimum nor an inflection point? The answer is yes, for example, the function
(
x4 sin x1 if x 6¼ 0
HðxÞ ¼
0 if x ¼ 0

has a critical point at x ¼ 0. H is twice differentiable at every real number. Moreover,

H0 ð0Þ ¼ 0 and H00 ð0Þ ¼ 0. Nevertheless, H has neither a maximum nor a minimum
nor an inflection point at the critical point x ¼ 0.
The first derivative criterion provides sufficient conditions to determine the
maximum and minimum of a function. The commonly used figures to illustrate this
criterion are often simple and eloquent ([9–14]), to the extent that appears, perhaps,
to not necessarily be a formal proof (Figure 2). Certainly, the figure helps us to
understand and learn the criterion, let us say that its statement totally responds to
our intuition.
However, the first derivative criterion has a complexity that we cannot perceive in
this figure. The figures may communicate the false idea that the theorem is trivial,
easy to articulate and to implement. In fact, in practice there may be serious
difficulties in applying the first derivative criterion, because this requires determining
the sign of a function (the derivative function) in an interval that should be chosen
appropriately, when such an interval exists.
 International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 287

Figure 2. Sign of the first derivative around a maximum.

A subtle fact about the first derivative criterion, which certainly stands against
our intuition, is that the condition of the sign of the derivative is sufficient but not
necessary. For instance, a differentiable function can have a maximum value at a
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point x; however, it may happen that the derivative is not positive, for the points
belonging to any neighbourhood on the left side of the point x. Without any doubt,
our intuition and a graph like the above (Figure 2) can lead us to believe that the
condition is necessary and sufficient. In the next section, we extend this discussion
and provide a counterexample.
The second derivative criterion has an advantage over the first derivative
criterion as it avoids the problem of determining the sign of a function in an interval.
With the second criterion, it is sufficient to determine the sign of the second
derivative at a single point. In this sense, it is easier to apply the second derivative
criterion than the first derivative criterion, but the second derivative does not always
exists, which is either a drawback or a disadvantage. In such cases, the first derivative
criterion could be the only option.
In this article, we have raised points that are not often considered in textbooks.
The first being the concept of the derivative and its geometric interpretation. The
second being the conditions of necessity or sufficiency of the criteria for determining
the maxima and minima of a function.

2. The process of differentiation

We begin our discussion with the definition of the derivative with the geometric
interpretation being discussed in the next section. We note that the derivative is a
number associated to a function at a point in its domain when the conditions of
existence are given:
f ðxÞ  f ðaÞ
f 0 ðaÞ ¼ lim :
x!a xa
The differentiation is not a process of obtaining a formula (the derivative
function) from another source (the function).
 288 Classroom Notes

If we conceive the process of differentiation in this way, it can lead us to

perform incorrect calculations for obtaining the derivatives in particular
situations. Clearly, in a learning environment, this is an obstacle for understand-
ing the concept. The differentiation is a process of obtaining the derivative of a
function at each point. The derivative function is obtained as a result of
this process rather than as a result of applying a set of algorithmic rules to a
formula.
Let us call this latter process the formal application of rules of derivation. The
derivative function has a domain which is determined previously by finding the
points where the function is differentiable. The domain is determined a priori not a
posteriori. The domain cannot be determined by getting a function (the so-called
derivative function) which was obtained by the formal application of differentiation
rules and by determining subsequently the points where the function is defined. This
is a misconception usually adopted by students that can be attributed to instances
where teaching occurs as described above. pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
For example, let the function f ðxÞ ¼ 1  x2 be defined on 1  x  1, that is,
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in the closed interval ½1, 1. If we apply formally the differentiation rules, we obtain
x
f 0 ðxÞ ¼  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi :
1  x2
It is easy to see that its domain is the open interval 1 5 x 5 1. Outside this
interval f 0 ðxÞ is not defined because for jxj  1, we have 1  x2  0. From the
formula for f 0 ðxÞ it is often concluded that the function f ðxÞ is differentiable in
1 5 x 5 1 but not on the extreme points of the interval, that is, 1 and 1. The
conclusion is correct but the argument is not valid.
As another example, consider the function
 
1 1
hðxÞ ¼ log  :
1 þ x2 2
If we apply formally and without consideration1 the differentiation rules to the
function hðxÞ, we get
4x
h0 ðxÞ ¼ :
ðx2 þ 1Þðx2  1Þ

The domain of h0 ðxÞ consists of all x not equal to 1 or 1, but this set is
not the domain of the function hðxÞ. For instance, the function h0 ðxÞ is defined
at x ¼ 2, but the function hðxÞ is not defined at this point, and therefore it
makes no sense to compute the derivative of h at x ¼ 2. In other words, the
derivative of h does not exist at x ¼ 2. In this case, h0 ðxÞ is not the derivative
function of hðxÞ.
The above example is a sophisticated form of the trivial case g(x) ¼ log x. This
function is defined for all positive real numbers, but it is not defined neither at zero
nor for negative numbers. However g’(x) ¼ 1/x is defined for all x not equal to 0, that
is, g0 (x) is defined for negative numbers even when the derivative of g(x) does not
exist at those points (see Figure 3). In addition, a function h, whose derivative is
h0 (x) ¼ 1/ x, is given by h(x) ¼ log|x| which is derivable at every x6¼0. Another
example is the function f(x) ¼ log(1/(1+x2)  1). The application of differentiation
formal rules leads us to f0 (x) ¼ 2/(x(x2 þ 1)). This function is defined for all x not
 International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 289

Figure 3. (a) Graph g(x) ¼ log x; (b) graph g0 (x) ¼ x1.

equal to 0, however f (x) is not defined at any real number. We might say that the
domain of f (x) is the empty set.
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Consider the absolute value function in relation to the above-mentioned function

but from a different perspective. The function f ðxÞ ¼ jxj is a typical example used in
the teaching of elementary calculus in order to illustrate the non-differentiability of
functions at a point. In this case, f ðxÞ is differentiable for all x 6¼ 0 and its
derivative is given by

1 if x 4 0
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ :
1 if x 5 0
Students usually attribute the non-differentiability at a point as a result of the
graph having a peak at that point. Hence, the non-differentiability is interpreted as
the existence of peaks on the graphs.
Now consider the next function

2
x if x  0
gðxÞ ¼ xjxj ¼ 2
:
x if x 5 0
In this case, although the students have had the experience of finding the
derivative of the absolute value function, some of them do not know how to proceed.
Even without making calculations they assume that the function is not differentiable
at x 6¼ 0 due to the presence of jxj. Some students proceed by finding the formal
derivative, that is

0 2x if x  0
g ðxÞ ¼ :
2x if x 5 0
Fortunately, or maybe we should say unfortunately, they get the right answer
despite its lack of analysis and procedural performance characterized by unreflective
application of formulas. However, it is common that students do not realize that the
point x ¼ 0 deserves special treatment. Figure 4 illustrates the graphs of gðxÞ
and g0 ðxÞ.
The above examples are particular cases of piecewise-defined functions. The
practice of finding the derivative of a function without reflection is revealed when we
ask students to find the derivative of such functions.
As another example, consider the next two functions
 290 Classroom Notes

Figure 4. (a) Graph g(x) ¼ x|x|; (b) graph g0 (x).

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Figure 5. Two different piecewise-functions: (a) graph f (x); (b) graph g(x).

83 2 8
>
> x 1 if 1  x  1 >
> x3  1 if 1  x  1
<2 < 2 1
f ðxÞ ¼ 3x  52 if 1  x  2 ; gðxÞ ¼ 1
x þ 2 4 if 1  x  2 :
>
> >
>
: :
ðx  1Þ3 þ 52 if 2  x  3 2x þ 2 if 2  x  3

If we ask students to find the derivative of every function, the common answer is
8 8
>
> 3x if  1  x  1 >
> 3x2 if  1  x  1
< <  
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ 3 if 1  x  2 ; g0 ðxÞ ¼ 2 x þ 12 if 1  x  2 :
>
> >
>
: :
3ðx  1Þ2 if 2  x  3 2 if 2  x  3
Students usually operate with differential formal rules in every expression.
However, f 0 ðxÞ is certainly the derivative function of f ðxÞ but g0 ðxÞ is not the
derivative function of gðxÞ. We can understand these situations by looking at the
graphs of the functions f ðxÞ and gðxÞ (Figure 5). When we analyze the differentiation
of a function of this kind, we should consider the extreme points of the
corresponding intervals to the different formulas involved in the definition. At
those extreme points, the left and right derivatives as well as the continuity of the
function must be considered.
 International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 291

3. The derivative as slope of a tangent line

The derivative at a point in the domain of a function is interpreted as the slope of the
tangent line at the corresponding point on the graph. This interpretation is based on
the interpretation of the difference quotient

f ðxÞ  f ðaÞ
xa
related to the slopes of secant lines to the graph.
According to the above meaning of the derivative, we can point out two
observations:
(a) We give this meaning to the derivative based on a process involving a limit of
geometric objects, such as the secant lines.
(b) We give the meaning of the derivative as a slope of a tangent line, assuming
implicitly that we have the concept of tangent line to a curve. This
assumption is trivialized for curves, which are usually used as an illustrative
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purpose (Figure 5). The curves are usually simple and in most cases it is not
necessary to give any explanation of the meaning of tangent line. It is enough
to give an intuitive idea and the visual image for showing that the straight
line ‘touches’ the curve at a point. Then it is accepted, without any doubt,
that the derivative corresponds to the slope of a tangent line. Hence it is
natural that we establish the tangent line, to the graph of the function f at the
point ða, f ðaÞÞ, given by the equation y ¼ f 0 ðaÞðx  aÞ þ f ðaÞ.
In a first course of calculus, in general, teachers and students are not aware that
the derivative defines the tangent line, which it is defined through the previous
equation. For this reason students are surprised and reluctant to accept the
relationship of tangency for curves of more complex forms, this concept of tangent
line is much simpler. For example, the function
(
1 2
x sin x1 þ x if x 6¼ 0
hðxÞ ¼ 10
0 if x ¼ 0

Figure 6. Graph of hðxÞ with the tangent line at the point ð0, 0Þ.
 292 Classroom Notes

is differentiable at x ¼ 0, so the graph has defined the tangent line at the point ð0, 0Þ
and that is precisely the line whose equation is y ¼ x. However, the geometric
situation is not easily accepted by the student when he looks at the graph and its
tangent line (Figure 6). In this example, the tangent to the curve at ð0, 0Þ does not
correspond to the intuitive idea that we use to give meaning to the derivative, in a first
calculus course, it is difficult to imagine the meaning that this definition may have.

4. First criterion for maxima and minima

Introductory calculus courses deal with the derivative and its relationship with the
maxima and minima of a differentiable function and which is simply established as
follows:
If a differentiable function f has a maximum or a minimum value at a point a, then
f 0 ðaÞ ¼ 0.
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This is a first criterion for determining the maxima and minima of a function. In
other words, this theorem says that a necessary condition for a differentiable
function, having a maximum or a minimum at a point, is that its derivative at that
point is zero. To justify this criterion, textbooks usually refer to two figures is shown
in Figure 7.
The formal proof is very simple and it does not require the mean value theorem
as required by other criteria for maximum and minimum, but in a first calculus
course may be sufficiently taught via the graphical interpretation. A point where the
derivative is zero, the tangent to the graph is horizontal; intuitively this occurs at
points where there is a maximum or a minimum value.
The above statement may be appropriate for the teaching of calculus in a first
undergraduate course; however, it is incomplete and inaccurate because, at first
glance, some conditions are not explicit. In that statement, if the domain of the
function is an interval of the form ½, , then the point a, where it reaches a
maximum or minimum, can be neither  nor , i.e.  5 a 5 . If a is one of the
endpoints then is not necessarily f 0 ðaÞ ¼ 0. If a is a point on the domain ½,  that
satisfies  5 a 5 , we say that a is an interior point of the domain f. If the domain of
a function consists of all real numbers, then every point is an interior point. In
general, a point a is an interior point of the domain of a function, if it belongs to
some interval c 5 x 5 d that is contained in the domain. The condition that the point
a is an interior point of the domain is important for what we have called the first
criterion for maxima and minima.
As an example, let the function be
 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
f ðxÞ ¼ ðx3  x2  2x þ 1Þ 1  1  x2 :

Figure 7. Maximum and minimum.

 International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 293

Figure 8. (a) Graph of f ðxÞ and (b) graph of f ðxÞ with other scale.

The domain of this function is the closed interval ½1, 1 and f is differentiable at
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every x such that 1 5 x 5 1. The formula for f ðxÞ does not allows us to define it
out of the interval ½1, 1. Now, its derivative is given by
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1  x2 ð3x2  2x  2Þ þ 4x4  3x3  7x2 þ 3x þ 2
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi :
1  x2
This derivative can also be written as
 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
1  x 2 3x2  2x þ 4x4  3x3  7x2 þ 3x 2 1  1  x2
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi :
1  x2 1  x2
Clearly, f 0 ðxÞ vanishes at x ¼ 0. So x ¼ 0 is a critical point of f ðxÞ. In fact, this
function has a minimum at this point with a value f ð0Þ ¼ 0. But we can verify
without difficulty that f ð1Þ ¼ 1. So f ð0Þ ¼ 0 is not the minimum of f ðxÞ. The
minimum value of f ðxÞ is precisely f ð1Þ ¼ 1.
In Figure 8, we observe a change of scale in the y-axis, which allows us to observe
that the function actually has a minimum value (local or relative) at x ¼ 0. We can
also see from the graph of the function that f reaches a maximum value at some point
in the interval 0 5 x 5 1, but the maximum value is not the absolute maximum of
f ðxÞ. The function reaches its absolute maximum at x ¼ 1. In short, the function
f ðxÞ reaches its maximum value at x ¼ 1 and its minimum value at x ¼ 1, but at
these points the derivative is not zero and, in fact, f is not even a differentiable
function at these points.

4.1. Criterion of the first derivative (CFD)

Since the condition f 0 ðaÞ ¼ 0 is not sufficient for a function f ðxÞ to have a maximum
or minimum at the point a, there is the necessity to complement the first criterion and
thereby ensure that at a critical point, which meets extra conditions, there is a
maximum or minimum. A complementary proposition is called the CFD which we
establish as follows:
If the derivative of a function f ðxÞ is positive on the left side of a critical point and
negative on the right side, then f ðxÞ has a maximum at that critical point. If, on the
 294 Classroom Notes

Figure 9. Graph of f ðxÞ.

other side, the derivative is negative on the left side and positive on the right side then
f ðxÞ has a minimum at the critical point.
In practice, it is difficult to apply this criterion because this requires finding a
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suitable neighbourhood of the critical point where the derivative has an algebraic
sign on the right side of the critical point and the opposite algebraic sign on the
left side. Determining the algebraic sign of a function can be a difficult problem. For
example, consider the function
f ðxÞ ¼ 2 cos x þ x sin x:
The derivative of this function is
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ x cos x  sin x:
It is easy to verify that x ¼ 0 is a critical point, that is f 0 ð0Þ ¼ 0. However, to seek
the algebraic sign of the derivative for x 4 0 and for x 5 0 near to x ¼ 0 can be a
difficult task.
The CFD is applied when, in theory, it is possible to find a neighbourhood of the
critical point where the derivative has a sign on the left side of the critical point and
opposite sign on the right side. So this criterion may fail for two reasons:
(i) the derivative has the same algebraic sign to the left and right sides of the
critical point and
(ii) there does not exist a neighbourhood of the critical point such that the
derivative has a single algebraic sign to the left or to the right sides.
These two cases correspond to the negation of the premise in the statement
of the criterion. In the case (i), if the derivative has the same sign throughout a
neighbourhood of the critical point, with the exception of the critical point
where it takes the value zero, then the function is increasing or decreasing
in that neighbourhood, and therefore has neither a maximum nor minimum
at the critical point. On the other hand, in the case (ii) the CFD is not
applicable.
An example for the latter case is the function, defined as follows:
8
>
<2  x2
  if x 6¼ 0
f ðxÞ ¼ 1 þ sin2 12 :
>
:
2 if x ¼ 0
 International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 295

The graph of this function looks, at first sight, as shown in Figure 9.

Looking carefully at the scale on the y-axis, the function has a maximum at
x ¼ 0. It is easy to verify that the function is differentiable at x ¼ 0 and
that f 0 ð0Þ ¼ 0. Indeed,
2
 x 2 1 
f ðxÞ  f ð0Þ 1þsin x
lim ¼ lim
x!0 x x!0 x
x
¼  lim 
x!0 1 þ sin2 1
x
¼ 0:
The value of the limit follows from the inequality

x

0    jxj:
1 þ sin2 1
x
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Then f is differentiable at x ¼ 0 and f 0 ð0Þ ¼ 0.

Since we have shown that x ¼ 0 is a critical point of the function, maybe we can
prove that the function has a maximum value at this point by using the CFD. We
should point out that on the graph the oscillations of the sine function cannot be
perceived. If the scale is changed slightly, we will observe the expected oscillations
(Figure 10).
The infinite oscillations around zero are not an impediment for the function
having a maximum at x ¼ 0. Actually, for every x 6¼ 0, we have
x2
2    2 ¼ f ð0Þ:
1 þ sin2 x1
This means that f ð0Þ ¼ 2 is an absolute maximum of f, that is, f ðxÞ  f ð0Þ for
every real number. However the derivative takes, on the right side, positive and
negative values at points as near to the critical point as desired. In fact, for every
natural number n, we have
  !
0 1 2 0 1 4 16
f ¼ 5 0 and f ¼  4 0:
n þ 2 ð2n þ 1Þ n þ 3
4
9 3ð4n þ 3Þ

Therefore, it is not possible to apply the CFD.

Figure 10. Zoom-in of the graph of f near to (0, 2).

 296 Classroom Notes

4.2. Criterion of the second derivative (CSD)

A simple statement of this criterion is the following:
Let f be a twice differentiable function on an interval and x0 a critical point.
Suppose that f 00 ðx0 Þ 6¼ 0.
(a) If f 00 ðx0 Þ 4 0, then f has a minimum at x0 .
(b) If f 00 ðx0 Þ 5 0, then has f a maximum at x0 .
Some authors used to prove the CSD based on the concept of concavity which
must be defined previously. However, the criterion can be demonstrated in a simple
manner without resorting to the concavity. Suppose, for example, f 0 ðx0 Þ ¼ 0 and
f 00 ðx0 Þ 4 0.
Since

f 0 ðxÞ  f 0 ðx0 Þ f 0 ðxÞ

f 00 ðx0 Þ ¼ lim ¼ lim ,
x!x0 x  x0 x!x0 x  x0
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we have

f 0 ðxÞ
40
x  x0
for all points x sufficiently close x0 , both to the right and the left sides of x0 . If x lies
on the left side, x  x0 5 0, then we have f 0 ðxÞ 5 0. If x lies on the right side,
x  x0 4 0, then we have f 0 ðxÞ 4 0. Using the CFD, it follows that f ðxÞ has a
minimum at x0 . Figure 11 contains the relevant information that allows us to recall
the CSD.
In Figure 11, we see explicitly the sufficient conditions, i.e. f 00 ðx0 Þ 5 0 and
00
f ðx0 Þ 4 0 for the function f having a maximum and a minimum value, respectively;
however, these conditions are not necessary. A simple example that illustrates this
fact is f ðxÞ ¼ x4 . In this case, f ðxÞ has a critical point at x ¼ 0 and also a minimum at
this point too, however f 00 ð0Þ ¼ 0, so that, it is not necessary that the condition
f 00 ð0Þ 4 0. This example shows us that the CSD fails because f 00 is zero at the critical
point. However, the CFD is applicable.
Another example is the function gðxÞ ¼ x3 . In this case g0 ðxÞ ¼ 3x2 for all real
number x and the function has a critical point at x ¼ 0. Since g00 ð0Þ ¼ 0, the CSD
fails, as well as the CFD, because the first derivative is positive at every point x 6¼ 0.
Note that the CFD does not indicate what happens in the case where the derivative
has the same algebraic sign to the right and left side of the critical point. We
complement this criterion by adding that when the derivative has the same algebraic
sign in a neighbourhood of the critical point (except at the critical point where the
derivative is zero), the function has neither a minimum nor a maximum at that point.

Figure 11. Graphical representation for the CSD.

 International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 297

With this extended version, we can confirm that the above function has neither a
maximum nor a minimum.
The second derivative must exist and it must be different to zero at the
critical point in order to apply the CSD. Thus, the criterion fails when either the
second derivative does not exist or it is equal to zero. An interesting case is
when there is no second derivative at the critical point. For example, the
function

2
x if x  0
f ðxÞ ¼ xjxj ¼
x2 if x 5 0
has a derivative at all points, including x ¼ 0 and its derivative is given by
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ 2jxj 4 0 for all x 2 R, however there is no second derivative, so the CSD
cannot applied. This is a case similar to the function gðxÞ ¼ x3 in the sense that the
CFD cannot be applied. However, the extended version of this criterion can be
applied here.
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Another example similar to the above one is the function

( 3
3 x2 if x  0
GðxÞ ¼ jxj2 ¼ 3 :
ðxÞ2 if x 5 0

This function has a critical point at x ¼ 0, it has a second derivative at every

point except at the critical point, therefore the CSD cannot be applied but the
function has a minimum at the critical point (Figure 12). In this case the CFD can be
easily used because the first derivative is given by
( pffiffiffi
3
0 2 x if x  0
G ðxÞ ¼ 3
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi :
 2 x if x 5 0

Note that the graph of GðxÞ might

pffiffiffiffiffi
ffi suggest that there is a second derivative
at x ¼ 0, but G00 ðxÞ ¼ ð3=4Þð1= jxjÞ for all x 6¼ 0 and we can see that G00 ð0Þ
does not exist. We also have that limx!0 G00 ðxÞ ¼ þ1, so we can write
G00 ð0Þ ¼ þ1:

Figure 12. Graph of GðxÞ ¼ jxj3=2 .

 298 Classroom Notes

Finally, consider the functions

( (
x2 sin2 x1 if x 6¼ 0 x4 sin2 x1 if x 6¼ 0
GðxÞ ¼ HðxÞ ¼ :
0 if x ¼ 0 0 if x ¼ 0

On one hand, the function GðxÞ has a minimum at x ¼ 0, but G00 ð0Þ does not exist
and therefore we cannot apply the CSD. On the other hand, HðxÞ is two times
differentiable at the critical point x ¼ 0 and Hð0Þ is a minimum, but none of the
criteria can be applied either.

5. Final remark
In undergraduate calculus courses, a highly graphical context is recommended to
further deeper understanding of various concepts and results about the derivative.
However, as teachers, we should be aware that this context has limitations. With the
examples discussed in this article, we try to emphasize this fact, which is often
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neglected in either textbooks or in the classroom.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions to
improve the quality of this article. Also, particular thanks to Kelly E. Matthews, Lecturer in
Higher Education at the University of Queensland (Australia), for her insightful and
thoughtful comments.

Note
1. Consider: To think about carefully. Merriam Webster Dictionary 2011.

References

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[2] L. Aspinwall, K.L. Shaw, and N. Presmeg, Uncontrollable mental imagery: Graphical
connection between a function and its derivative, Educ. Stud. Math. 33(3) (1997),
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[3] J. Bezuidenhout, First-year university students’ understanding of rates of change, Int. J.
Math. Educ. Sci. Technol. 29(3) (1998), pp. 389–399.
[4] M. Hähkiöniemi, Associative and reflective connections between the limit of the difference
quotient and limiting process, J. Math. Behav. 25(2) (2006), pp. 91–184.
[5] A. Sierpinska, Understanding in Mathematics, Falmer Press, London, 1992.
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A.H. Schoenfeld and J. Kaput, eds., American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI,
2000, pp. 103–127.
[7] W. Prenowitz, Insight and understanding in the calculus, Am. Math. Monthly 60 (1953),
pp. 32–37.
[8] G.L. Lloyd and M. Wilson, Supporting innovation: The impact of a teacher’s conceptions of
functions on his implementation of a reform curriculum, J. Res. Math. Educ. 29(3) (1998),
pp. 248–274.
 International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 299

[9] T.M. Apostol, Calculus: One-variable Calculus, with an Introduction to Linear Algebra,
Vol. 1, Wiley, New York, 1967.
[10] J. Leithhold, Calculus 7, 7th ed., HarperCollins College Div, New York, 1995.
[11] A. Rivera, Cálculo y sus Fundamentos para Ingenierı´a y Ciencias, Editorial Patria, México,
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[12] M. Spivak, Calculus, Publish or Perish, Houston, TX, 1994.
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Boston, MA, 2009.

Computing bisectors in a dynamic geometry environment

Francisco Botana*

Department of Applied Mathematics I, University of Vigo, Pontevedra 36005, Spain

(Received 1 December 2011)
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In this note, an approach combining dynamic geometry and automated

deduction techniques is used to study the bisectors between points and
curves. Usual teacher constructions for bisectors are discussed, showing
that inherent limitations in dynamic geometry software impede their
thorough study. We show that the interactive sketching of bisectors and an
automatic treatment of the algebraic problem involved can give a
reasonable knowledge about them. Since some cases are currently out of
computational scope, despite the simplicity of the bisector problem, we
sketch an alternative method for dealing with them.
Keywords: bisector; geometric loci; dynamic geometry

1. Introduction
Most of Dynamic Geometry (DG) environments incorporate primitive predicates for
computing the perpendicular bisector of two points or a segment, and the parabola
defined by a point and its directrix. These cases are particular instances of general
bisectors. The bisector of two geometric elements is the locus of a point that moves
while remaining equidistant respect to those elements. Since its definition is so
simple, it is not surprising that DG users, both teachers and students, frequently deal
with bisector constructions. However, most of these constructions are limited to
exhibit a graphical trace of the sought locus and there is no algebraic knowledge
about them. The aim of this note is to perform a systematic discussion of the
construction of bisectors between point and curves in a DG environment.
Furthermore, some considerations about automatically obtaining their algebraic
characterization are given. We also discuss the differences between answers coming
from the DG environment and the symbolic ones.
Section 2 deals with bisectors between point and general lines. We study and
propose dynamic constructions for bisectors, and a symbolic method for computing
the equations of objects containing the bisector is recalled. Section 3 describes the
computation of curve/curve bisectors. Since the approach taken here is based on
envelopes, we show that a closed-form answer is returned just for low-degree curves.

*Email: fbotana@uvigo.es
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2012.690900

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