ELECTROSTATICS The fundamental law of charges states that

like charges repel each other while unlike

INTRODUCTION
charges attracts each other.
It was known long ago that a piece of ebonite
Coulomb’s Law
rubbed with glass attracts each other. Also

when amber and fur where rubbed together Coulomb in 1785 studied the interaction

the amber can attracts a small piece of paper. between charges and deduce a law for the

All these observations were possible due to force between two point charges. A point

the presence of charges. charge experience a force due to the presence

of another charge placed a distance 𝑟 from it.

The force between charges is a fundamental
Consider the diagram below
force of nature. We shall begin our discussion

of electrostatics with the understanding of

Coulomb’s law and its manifestations.

Law of charges

A charge is a property of a body which is

responsible for electrical force of the body.

There are two charges in nature: The positive

Fig. 1
charge define as the charge on a proton and

the negative charge define as the charge on an The force between the charges was

electron. experimentally found to be proportional to

the product of their magnitudes and inversely

The basic unit of charge is the Coulomb (C)
proportional to the square of their separation.
and the magnitude of charge on an electron or

proton. i.e 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶.

 𝑄𝑞 𝜀𝑟 Is called relative permittivity or dielectric
𝐹∝
𝑟2
constant of the medium. For air, 𝜀𝑟 =
Or
1.0061, for glass𝜀𝑟 = 3, for water𝜀𝑟 =

𝑘𝑄𝑞 81 and for a conductor𝜀𝑟 = ∞.

𝐹= 1
𝑟2

For several charges say𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 ……….𝑞𝑛

Where 𝑘 is a constant of proportionality and
1 with positions𝑟1, 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 ………….𝑟𝑛 . The total
is determine using the equation 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀 ≅
𝑜
force on Q will be the sum of all the
9 2 2
9.0 × 10 𝑁𝑚 /𝐶 . 𝜀𝑜 is called the
individual forces
permittivity of free space with a numerical
𝑛
value of 𝜀𝑜 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁𝑚2. 𝑞𝑖
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑄 ∑
𝑟𝑖 2
𝑖
We can thus write Eq. 1 as
Coulomb’s law is similar to Newton’s law of
1 𝑄𝑞
𝐹= gravitation. They are both referred to as
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
inverse square laws.
If the charges are situated in a medium other
Example 1
than vacuum with a permittivity𝜀, the the

electrostatic force becomes Compare the magnitude of the electrostatic

1 𝑄𝑞 and gravitational force between an electron

𝐹𝑚 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 2
and a proton at a distance 𝑟 apart in a H2
From Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 we get
atom.

𝐹 𝜀
= = 𝜀𝑟 Solution
𝐹𝑚 𝜀𝑜

The electrostatic and gravitational forces are

given by the equations below

 1 𝑒𝑞𝑝 𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑝
𝐹𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀 and 𝐹𝑔 =
𝑜 𝑟2 𝑟2

Taking the ratio of the two forces

𝐹𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑝
=
𝐹𝑔 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑝
Now applying Coulomb’s law
9 −19 )2
𝐹𝑒 9.0 × 10 × (1.6 × 10
=
𝐹𝑔 (6.67 × 10−11 ) × (9.11 × 10−31 ) × (1.67 × 10−27 )
𝐹9𝑒 = 𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑒
= 2.27 × 1039
𝐹𝑔

9𝑒 × 𝑞 1𝑒 × 𝑞
This shows that the electrostatic force is =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑥 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑥)2
about 1029 stronger than the gravitational
𝑥2
force between electron and a proton. =9
(𝑟 − 𝑥)2

Example 2
𝑥2
√ = √9
Two point charges +9𝑒 and +1𝑒 are kept at (𝑟 − 𝑥)2

a distance 16 𝑐𝑚 from each other. At what 𝑥

=3
point between these charges should a third 𝑟−𝑥

charge 𝑞 be placed so that it remains in 3𝑟 3(16)

𝑥= =
4 4
equilibrium.
𝑥 = 12 𝑐𝑚
Solution

Consider the diagram

Example 3

Two equal positive charges of magnitude

2.0 𝜇𝐶 interact with a third charge 𝑄 =

4.0 𝜇𝐶 as shown below. Find the magnitude 0.3
(𝐹1 )𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = − (0.29 × ) = −0.17 𝑁
0.5
and direction of the net force on the Q.
For the two charges

𝐹𝑥 = 0.23 + 0.23 = 0.46 𝑁

𝐹𝑦 = −0.17 + 0.17 = 0 𝑁

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 0.46 𝑁

Fig. 2 Example 4

Solution Point charges are placed at the vertices of a

Using Coulomb’s law square of side 𝑎 as shown below. What

should be the sign of charge 𝑞 and the

1 𝑄𝑞
𝐹= 𝑞
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 magniyude of the ratio |𝑄| so that:

(9.0 × 109 ) × (2.0 × 10−6 ) × (4.0 × 10−6 )

𝐹1 = = 0.29 𝑁
(0.5)2 1. Net force on each 𝑄 is zero.

Now we need to find the component of F1 2. Net force on each 𝑞 is zero.

along the x and y axes

(𝐹1 )𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝐹1 cos 𝛼

0.4
(𝐹1 )𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 0.29 × = 0.23 𝑁
0.5

(𝐹1 )𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = −𝐹1 sin 𝛼

Fig. 3.
Solution Since 𝐹𝑅 and 𝐹3 are in opposite direction, the

net force can be zero if their magnitude is

For attraction to happen between 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 the
equal.
two charges must have opposite sign

𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹3

𝑄𝑞 1 𝑄𝑄
2
√2 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑎 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 2𝑎2

𝑄
𝑞√2 =
2

𝑞 1
| |=
𝑄 2√2

Electric Field
Now
The electric field is a region where a test
1 𝑄𝑞
𝐹1 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑎2 charge experience a force. The presence of a

charge is detected when another charge is

1 𝑄𝑞
𝐹2 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑎2 brought near it. Electric field is characterized

1 𝑄𝑄 by direction and intensity. The electric field

𝐹3 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 2𝑎2
intensity at a point due to a charge is defined

as the force experienced by a unit positive

𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹1 2 + 𝐹2 2
charge kept at a point. Mathematically,

𝑄𝑞
𝐹𝑅 = √2 𝐹
𝐸 = 𝑞 = 4𝜇𝜀
𝑞
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑎2 3
𝑜𝑟2

The unit of electric field intensity is N/C

Electric lines of force are used to describe Example 6

electric field. The strength of the field is

determined by the number of lines present.

The concept of lines of force was introduced

by Micheal Faraday. This is an imaginary line

along which a unit positive charge tends to

move in an electric field. Some simple

Determine the point P in the diagram at which
arrangements of charges with the lines of
the electric field will be zero.
force are shown below

Solution

The electric field will be zero closer to

the charge with smaller magnitude.

Example 5
Using Eq. 3
What is the magnitude of the electric field at
𝑘𝑞
𝐸=
a point 2.0 𝑚 away from a point charge 𝑞 = 𝑟2

4.0 𝑛𝐶.
𝑘(2.5 × 10−6 ) 𝑘(6 × 10−6 )
=
𝑥2 (1 + 𝑥)2
Solution
𝑥2 (2.5 × 10−6 )
Using Eq. 3 =
(1 + 𝑥)2 (6 × 10−6 )

𝑞 9.0×109 ×(4.0×10−9 )
𝐸 = 4𝜇𝜀 =
𝑜𝑟
2 (2.0)2 𝑥 2.5
=√
1+𝑥 6
𝐸 = 9.0 𝑁/𝐶
𝑥 = 1.82 𝑚
 𝑞 4𝑟𝑑
𝐸= [ 2 ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑑2 )2
Example 7
If the point is far away from the dipole
Find the electric field at a point 𝑃 along the
system, then 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑, the equation reduce to
axial line of an electric dipole separated by a
4𝑞𝑑
distance 2𝑑 as shown in Fig. 4 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 3

Continuous charge distribution

So far we have assumed that the electric field

Fig. 4 is a collection of discrete point charges. If

instead, the charges are distributed

Solution
continuously over some region, the sum
Using Eq. 3, the electric field due to the +𝑞
becomes an integral and thus
is given by
𝑛
1 𝑞𝑖
1 𝑞 𝐸(𝑟) = ∑ 2 𝑟̂
𝐸+𝑞 = 4𝜇𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑑)2

Now
Also field due to the negative charge is

1 𝑑𝑞
1 𝑞 𝐸(𝑟) = 4𝜇𝜀 ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑟̂ 4
𝐸−𝑞 = 𝑜
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑑)2
Three distributions can be identified
The resultant electric field will now be
 Line distribution
𝐸 = 𝐸+𝑞 + (−𝐸−𝑞 )
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑙 , 𝜆
𝑞 𝑞
𝐸=[ − ] = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑑) 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑑)2
 1 𝜆𝑑𝑙
𝐸(𝑟) = ∫ 2 𝑟̂
4𝜇𝜀𝑜 𝑟

 Surface distribution

𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝑎 , 𝜎

= 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

1 𝜎𝑑𝑎
𝐸(𝑟) = ∫ 2 𝑟̂
4𝜇𝜀𝑜 𝑟

 Volume distribution Fig. 5

𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝜏 , 𝜌
Solution
= 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑑𝐸 cos 𝜃
1 𝜌𝑑𝜏
𝐸(𝑟) = ∫ 2 𝑟̂
4𝜇𝜀𝑜 𝑟 Where

𝑥 1 𝑑𝑞
cos 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝐸 =
𝑟 4𝜇𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
Example 7
Also from the diagram 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 .
A ring of radius 𝑎 carries a uniformely
Putting all this into 𝑑𝐸𝑥
distributed positive total charge 𝑄. Calculate
1 𝑑𝑞 𝑥
the electric field at a point 𝑃, lying a distance 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = ( )
4𝜇𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝑥 from its center along the central axis
𝑥 𝑑𝑞
perpendicular to the plane of the ring. (Fig. 5) 𝑑𝐸𝑥 =
4𝜇𝜀𝑜 𝑟 3

𝑥 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 3
4𝜇𝜀𝑜
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2

𝑄
𝑥
𝐸= 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑞
4𝜇𝜀𝑜 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2 0
 𝑄𝑥 Now let consider a point charge 𝑞 at the
𝐸= 3
4𝜇𝜀𝑜 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎 2 )2 origin. The flux that will be produce by this

charge through a given surface of radius say

𝑟 is
Gauss’s Law

The problem with electric field becomes

more complicated when the integral is not 𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑎

straight forward. An alternative approach is
𝑑𝑎 =
put forward by Gauss.
𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑

∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑎

1 𝑞
= ∫
4𝜇𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

∙ 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑
𝑞
∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 = 𝜀 6
𝑜

In the diagram above the total electric field Eq. 6 is otherwise referred to as Gauss’s law

through the surface can be expressed as a

Gauss’s law states that the electric flux
function of the number of lines and the area.
through any surface equals the charge enclose
Thus
divided by 𝜀𝑜

𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 5

Eq. 5 suggests that the flux through any

Example 7
closed surface is a measure of the total charge
Find the field outside a uniformly charged
enclosed inside. In other words, charge
sphere of radius 𝑅 and total charge 𝑞.
outside contribute nothing to the total flux.
 𝑞
Solution II. At a point on 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 2

the surface of
Using Eq. 6

𝑞 the sphere
∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 =
𝜀𝑜 III. At a point 𝐸=0
𝑑𝑎 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 inside the
𝑞
𝐸 ∙ 4𝜋𝑟 2 = sphere
𝜀𝑜

𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
Electric Potential

The concept of electric potential is similar to

Application of Gauss law
that of gravitational potential. Consider a
s/n Symmetry Electric positive test charge placed at a point where
field there is influence of an electric field due to
1 Infinete long wire 𝜆 another charge.
𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

2 Infinte charged plane 𝜎 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

𝐸=
2𝜀𝑜
sheet When the unit positive charge is moved from

3 Two parallel charged 𝜎

𝐸= A to B against the electric force, then work is
𝜀𝑜
sheet done. This work done is called electric

4 Uniformly charged potential. From definition of work

sphere
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑟
I. At a point 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
outside the Where 𝐹 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

sphere
 𝑟=𝑏
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 ∆𝑈 𝑈𝑎 𝑈𝑏
𝑤𝐴−𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟 𝑉= = ( − ) = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏
𝑟=𝑎 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞

𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑟=𝑏 This is the potential difference between

𝑤𝐴−𝐵 = [ ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑟=𝑎 points a and b.

𝑞1 𝑞2 1 1
𝑤𝐴−𝐵 = [ − ] The electric fied can be related to the
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏
potential as
If we expand the bracket we obtain
𝑑𝑉
𝐸=−
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑑𝑥
𝑈𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈𝑏 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑎 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑏
The unit of potential difference is the volt.
Thus
1𝑉 = 1𝐽/𝐶. Another frequently used unit of

𝑤𝐴−𝐵 = 𝑈𝑎 − 𝑈𝑏 potential difference especially in the firld of

atomic physics is the electron-volt (eV). It is

Where
define as the energy acquired by an electron
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 when it is accelerated through a potential of

one volt.
Is define as the potential energy associated

with 𝑞1 on 𝑞2 at a distance 𝑟. For a system 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽

containing more than two charges (Diagram),

Equipotential Surface
the potential energy (U) is given by
If all the points of a surface are at the same
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞3
𝑈= [ − − ] electric potential, then the surface is called an
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23
equipotential surface. In case of an isolated
The electric potential 𝑉, is the work done per
point charge, all points equidistant from the
unit charge expressed as
charge are at same potential. Thus,
equipotential surfaces in this case will be a 𝑞1 9.0 × 109 × 4 × 10−7
𝑉= =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 0.09
series of concentric spheres with the point

charge as their center. 𝑉 = 4 × 104 𝑉

The work done in bringing 𝑞2 = 2 ×

10−9 𝐶 to this point is qiven by

𝑊 = 𝑞2 𝑉

𝑊 = 2 × 10−9 × 4 × 104

𝑊 = 8 × 10−5 𝐽

Example 9
Because all the points are at equal potential,

the work done in moving a charge from one What is the electric potential at P in the

point to any on an equipotential surface is diagram below

zero.

Example 8

Calculate (1) the potential at a point due to a

charge 4 × 10−7 𝐶 located 0.09 𝑚 away. (2)

work done in bringing a charge 2 ×

10−9 𝐶 from infinity to that point.

Solution
Solution
Using the equation for potential, we have
Let the charge be 𝑞1 = 4 × 10−7 𝐶 , potential
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞4
due to this charge is 𝑉= [ + + + ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
 1 Solution
𝑉= (𝑞 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞4 )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 1
Using the Eq.
Where
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑉𝑃 = ( + )
𝑑 1.3 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟= = = 0.919 𝑚
√2 √2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑉𝑃 = ( − )
The total charge is 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎

𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞4 = 36 × 10−9 𝐶 1 2𝑞𝑎
𝑉𝑃 = [ 2 ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑥 − 𝑎2 )
9.0 × 109 × 36 × 10−9
𝑉= = 352.6 𝑉 At far point 𝑥 ≫ 𝑎
0.919

Example 10 1 2𝑞𝑎
𝑉≈ [ ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑥 2 )
An electric dipole consists of two charges of
The electric field is given by
equal and opposite direction sign separated

by a distance 2𝑎 as shown in Fig 𝑑𝑉

𝐸𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2𝑞𝑎 4𝑞𝑎
𝐸𝑥 = − ( 2 )=− 3
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 ) (𝑥 )

At a point in between the two charges

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑉𝑃 = ( − )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑎 + 𝑥
1. Calculate the electric potential at P
1 2𝑞𝑥
2. Calculate 𝑉 and 𝐸𝑥 at a point far from 𝑉𝑃 = [ 2 ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑎 − 𝑥 2 )
the dipole
And the field is
3. Calculate 𝑉 and 𝐸𝑥 if 𝑃 is located

between the two charges

 𝑑 1 2𝑞𝑥 26.0𝜇𝐶 and point charge 𝑞2 =
𝐸𝑥 = − { [ 2 ]}
𝑑𝑥 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑎 − 𝑥 2 ) −47.0𝜇𝐶 for the electrostatic
2𝑞 (𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 ) force between them to have a
=− ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )2 magnitude of 5.70 N.
The diagram shows the CsCl
crystal in which the 𝐶𝑙− is
surrounded by the 𝐶𝑠 + in the
eight corners of the cube. What
EXERCISES is the net electrostatic force on
the 𝐶𝑙−

1. Two charges of +10−9 𝐶 each are

5.
8 𝑐𝑚 apart in air. Find the
magnitude and direction of the
force exerted by these charges on 6. Two identical small charged

a third charge of +5 × 10−6 𝐶 that spheres, each having a mass of

is 5 𝑐𝑚 distance from the two 0.03 kg, hang in equilibrium as

charges. shown in Fig. The length of each

2. Point charges of 2 × 10−9 𝐶 are string is 0.15 m, and the angle 𝜃 is

located at each of the three 5.0°. Find the magnitude of the

corners of a square whose side are charge on each sphere.

0.20 𝑚. What would the

magnitude and direction of the
resultan force on a point charge of
−1.0 × 10−9 𝐶 if it were:
I. Located at the center
II. Located at the vacant
Fig.
corner of the square
3. What will be the period 7.

ofrevolution of an electron-proton
system if the distance between the
two particles is 1.4 𝑓𝑚.
4. What must be the distance
between point charge 𝑞1 =