Charles-Augustine de Coulomb

Answers Modern Physics

(PART-1)

1. The coulomb’s law

Charles Augustine de Coulomb was born on 14 June 1736 in Angoumois County in
France. He graduated in 1761 and joined as Lieutenant in French army. In 1785
Coulomb presented his first three reports on electricity and magnetism.
He stated “It follows therefore from three tests, that the repulsive force that the two
balls-(which were) electrified with the same kind of electricity-exert on each other,
follows the inverse proportion of the squares of the distance.”
𝑘𝑒×𝑒
F= 𝑟2
This is called Coulomb's static law so long as the space between the charges is fixed
and the force between them is constant. The static law is not much useful at present.
By integrating this equation with respect to space we get
𝑘𝑒 2
∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝜖𝑟 2 dr
𝒌𝒆𝟐
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)𝑬 = ………………..1.1
𝝐𝒓
Let k=∇ and the equation changes as
𝑒2
𝐸= ∇ 𝜖𝑟 ……………………………… 1.2

This is called as the dynamic law of coulomb. This is the law that is to be closely
investigated by us.

2. The differential vector

 Type equation here.
A complex number can be represented as
Z= (a+jb)
Z is said to be vector. The real part is ‘a’ and its imaginary part is ‘jb’. The letter j is
an imaginary quantity represented as
j=√−1
A differential operator can also be represented as a complex number as given below.
𝛁 = (−𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔) …………………………………………2.1
Where 𝛁 (𝑑𝑒𝑙)𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤.
𝜕
−𝜎 = − 𝜕𝑡
And 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑗2𝜋𝑓
𝜕
put together 𝛁 = (− 𝜕𝑡 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓)………………………………………..2.2
When the differential operator 𝛁 acts on the space r, it is given by

𝐯elocity 𝒗 =𝛁r = (−σr + jωr)………………………….2.3

𝒗 =∇𝑟 = − 𝜕𝑟𝜕𝑡 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑟………………………………………2.4
The real part of the right hand side is the linear velocity and imaginary part is the
circular velocity. Supposing it acts on a negative charge say an electron, the
equation will be
𝜕𝑒
𝒗 = 𝛁e = − + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑒
𝜕𝑡
When the vector operator 𝛁 acts upon the charge ne (n electrons) it is written
as

𝝏ne 𝝏e
𝒗 = 𝛁ne = − = −𝑛
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
Problem .1 Calculate number of electrons flowing in 1 ampere of current.
1 1
n = 𝑒 =1.603×10−19 =6.23830× 1018
 3. Vacuum Permeability and
Vacuum Permittivity
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) , an English self taught electrical
engineer, mathematician and physicist introduced the terms admittance,
conductance impedance, inductance, permeability( 𝜇) and permittivity( 𝜖) into
modern physics. He adapted the complex numbers for vectors and ordinary numbers
for scalars. He reformulated Maxwell’s field equations in terms of Electric and
Magnetic forces and Energy flux.

the permittivity of vacuum, ε0, and

the permeability of vacuum , μ0, and

the speed of light in vacuum

1
𝑐 = 𝜇 𝜖 ……………………………..3.1
√ 0 0

the resistence of vaccum as

√ 𝜇0
Ω0 = . …………………………………3.2
√𝜖0

𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 3.1𝑎𝑛𝑑 3.2 we get

√ 𝜇0 1 1
Ω0 𝑐 = =
√ 𝜖 0 √ 𝜇0 𝜖 0 𝜖 0

1
Ω0 =𝑐𝜖 ………………………………..3.3
0

Similarly 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 3.1 𝑏𝑦3.2

𝑐 1
=μ
Ω0 0

Inverting Ω0 = 𝑐 μ0 ………………………………………………3.4

We are going to use appropriately these space quantities in our dynamic

equation of Coulomb. As per the list of physical constants of –Wikipedia

μ0 = 4π × 10−7 = 1.25663706212 × 10−6

 𝜖0 = 8.8541878128 × 10−12

√𝜇0
Ω0 = =376.730≅ 377
√𝜖0

4. Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836)

Andre Marie Ampere was born in Lyon; the then kingdom of France.
He was one of the founders of ‘electrodynamics.” He was a member of French
Academy of Sciences, professor at Ecole polytechnique and the college de
France.
The SI unit of measurement of electric current, the ampere is named
after him. His name is also inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

Ampere showed that two parallel wires carrying electric currents attract
or repel each other, depending on whether the currents flow in the same or
opposite directions, respectively. He also applied the same principle to
magnetism showing harmony between his law and coulomb’s law.

We will take up the static law of Coulomb after dropping k

𝑒×𝑒
F=
𝜖0 𝑟 2

Recalling 2.3 𝒗 =𝛁r

𝜵 1
Transposing = ……………………………….4.1
𝒗 r

Inserting in the static law ,

𝛁𝑒𝛁𝑒
F= …………………4.2
𝜖0 𝒗𝒗

The presence of ∇ renders the static equation into a dynamic one.

𝐈𝐈
F= 𝜖 …………………4.2
0 𝒗𝒗
Since the equation is dynamic, let the velocity of the charge be c. Then the equation
changes to be
𝐈𝐈 cμ0 𝐈𝐈
F= 𝜖 = =μ0 𝐈𝐈
0 𝑐𝑐 𝑐
F=μ0 𝐈𝐈
If the flow of current is chosen as one Ampere, then

F=μ0 = 4π × 10−7 ……………..……………4.3

Thus the flow of charges became measureable for Andre -Marie
Ampere and paved the way for electrodynamics.

5. Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)

Volta was an Italian physicist, chemist and pioneer of electricity and

power. He invented electric Battery and discovered methane gas. He invented
the Voltaic pile and proved that electricity could be generated out of chemical
solutions and metallic plates and wires. Alessandro Volta held the chair of
experimental physics at the University of Pavia for nearly 40 years. The SI
unit of Electric potential is named in his honour as the Volt. Alessandro Volta
demonstrated his inventions to the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte and
drew his admirations.
Let us take the coulombs law 1.1
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒(𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)𝑬 =
𝜖𝑟
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒(𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 )𝑬 𝑘𝑒
= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 = ……5.1
𝑒 𝜖𝑟

6. Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854)

 Georg Simon ohm was German Physicist and Mathematician. He began
research after hearing about Alessandro Volta’s invention of voltaic pile. He found
that there is a direct proportionality between the potential difference (voltage) applied
across a conductor and the resultant electric current. This relationship came to be
known as the Ohm’s law. The work of Ohm marked the beginning of the subject of
circuit theory.

Let us take 5.1

𝑘𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 =
𝜖𝑟
Put k=1
𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 =
𝜖𝑟
Recall 4.1
𝜵=1 substituting it for 1 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
𝒗 r 𝑟

∇𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 =
𝜖𝑣
1
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 3.3 Ω=𝜖𝑣 , and putting above

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 = Ω∇𝑒
𝑉 = ΩI
Thus ohm’s law is delivered.

Charles-Augustine de Coulomb
Answers Modern Physics
(PART-2)