GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NUCLEI IV

1.7. STATISTICS OF NUCLEI:

We know that subatomic particles are governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. Let us
consider a system of two such particles. If the co-ordinates of the two particles are interchanged,
then the wavefunction of these particles will be either symmetric or anti-symmetric. A
symmetric wavefunction is one in which there is no change in its sign due to the interchange of
the co-ordinates. These system of particles, also called Bosons, follow the Bose-Einstein
statistics. If, however due to the operation, the sign of the wavefunction changes, we get an anti-
symmetric wavefunction. They (Fermions) follow Fermi-Dirac statistics.

𝜓(𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ) = + 𝜓 (𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ) : symmetric (for bosons)

𝜓(𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ) = − 𝜓 (𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ) Y (r1, r2) : antisymmetric (for fermions)

Fermions obey Pauli's Exclusion principle, so that no two particles can occupy the same quantum
state. Bosons do not obey exclusion principle and as such there is no restriction to the number of
the particles in a certain quantum state.

Statistics is conserved in nuclear reactions.

1.8. Parity of Nuclei

Parity operator 𝑃̂ is a quantum mechanical operator. Its operation corresponds to a mirror

reflection of its spatial co-ordinates i.e., it changes 𝑟⃗ → −𝑟⃗ or 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 → −𝑥, −𝑦, −𝑧. Then, the
wave function of a physical system changes from 𝜓(𝑟⃗) → 𝜓 (−𝑟⃗) or 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) → 𝜓 (−𝑥, −𝑦, −𝑧).

𝑃̂𝜓(𝑟⃗) = 𝜓 (−𝑟⃗)

𝑃̂𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝜓 (−𝑥, −𝑦, −𝑧) (1)

Let us consider the 3-D Hamiltonian

2
̂ = − ℏ ∇2 + 𝑉 (𝑟⃗)
𝐻 (2)
2𝑚
 ̂ is
Let 𝑉 (𝑟⃗) is invariant as 𝑟⃗ → −𝑟⃗. ∇2 also remains invariant as 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 → −𝑥, −𝑦, −𝑧. Hence, 𝐻
invariant under parity operation.

̂𝜓(𝑟⃗) = 𝐸𝜓(𝑟⃗)
∴𝐻 (3)

Applying the parity operation in equation (3)

𝑃̂𝐻
̂ 𝜓(𝑟⃗) = 𝑃̂𝐸𝜓(𝑟⃗)

̂ 𝜓(−𝑟⃗) = 𝐸𝜓(−𝑟⃗)
𝐻 (4)

Equations (3) and (4) imply that 𝜓(𝑟⃗) and 𝜓(−𝑟⃗) are simultaneous eigen function of the
Hamiltonian operator having the same eigen value E. Therefore, they are non-degenerate eigen
functions and should differ from each other only by a multiplicative constant λ (say).

𝜓(−𝑟⃗) = 𝜆 𝜓 (𝑟⃗) (5)

On operating on 1st part of equation (1) with 𝑃̂, we get

𝑃̂2 𝜓(𝑟⃗) = 𝑃̂ 𝜓 (−𝑟⃗) = 𝑃̂ 𝜆 𝜓(𝑟⃗) (using 5)

or 𝑃̂2 𝜓(𝑟⃗) = 𝑃
̂ 𝜆 𝜓(𝑟⃗) = 𝜆 𝜓(−𝑟⃗) = 𝜆2 𝜓(𝑟⃗) (6)

Also 𝑃̂2 𝜓(𝑟⃗) = 𝑃

̂ 𝑃̂ 𝜓(𝑟⃗) = 𝑃̂ 𝜓(−𝑟⃗) = 𝜓(𝑟⃗) (7)

Comparing (6) & (7), we get,

𝜆2 𝜓(𝑟⃗) = 𝜓(𝑟⃗)

or 𝜆2 = 1; ⟹ 𝜆 = ±1.

⟹ 𝜓(−𝑟⃗) = ±𝜓(𝑟⃗).

Thus, the wavefunction can be grouped into two classes.

If 𝜆 = +1, then 𝜓(−𝑟⃗) = 𝜓(𝑟⃗)

In this case, the wavefunction is said to have even parity.

If 𝜆 = −1, then 𝜓(−𝑟⃗) = −𝜓(𝑟⃗)

In this case, the wavefunction is said to have odd parity.

Further, the parity is related to the angular momentum operator l through the relation

𝑃̂ = (−1)𝑙 (8)

Parity is even if l = 0 or even and odd for l = odd.

In addition to the orbital parity (𝑃̂𝑜 𝑠𝑎𝑦) discussed above, fundamental particles may possess intrinsic
parity 𝑃̂𝑖 , which is related to inversion of some internal axis of the particle. The total parity is given by

𝑃̂𝑡 = 𝑃̂𝑜 𝑃̂𝑖

Conventionally the intrinsic parity of the nucleons is taken to be even. It is then fixed for other particles in
such a way that particles participating in strong nuclear or electromagnetic interaction have the parity
conserved.

For a nucleus it follows that 𝑃̂ = (−1)𝑙 . Thus, a system with an even number of odd-parity particles and
any number of even-parity particles will have even parity. A system with an odd number of odd-parity
particles will have odd parity.

1.9 Nuclear Isospin

Let us consider the following experimental facts:

(i) The neutron and proton have almost same masses.

(ii) The strong force between two neutrons or two protons is same. (CHARGE
SYMMETRY)
(iii) The strong force between two neutrons or two protons or a proton and a neutron is same.
(CHARGE INDEPENDENCE)
They appear to differ in nothing but only the electric charge. These facts strongly suggest that the
neutrons and protons are the same particle in two different charge state called the nucleon. To
explain the concept Heisenberg introduced a mathematical three dimensional space called the
isospace and the parameter which distinguishes the two states of the nucleon called isobaric spin,
isotopic spin or more commonly the isospin.
An electron has an intrinsic spin s =1/2. If we have two electrons with z- component of their spin
set to sz = +1/2 and sz = − 1/2 (in units of ℏ). The two electrons as such are indistinguishable. If
we apply a non-uniform magnetic field in the z-direction, the electrons will move in opposite
directions. Thus, we are able to distinguish the otherwise indisntinguishable electrons. But we
are used to thinking of these as two states of the same particle. Similarly, if we could ‘switch off’
electromagnetic interactions we would not be able to distinguish between a proton and a neutron.
As far as the strong interactions are concerned these are just two states of the same particle (a
nucleon). We therefore think of an imaginary space in which the nucleon has a property called
“isospin”, which is mathematically analogous to spin. The proton and neutron are now
considered to be a nucleon with different values of the third component of this isospin. The
isospin is denoted by t. For a nucleon t =1/2
1 1
In an abstract isospace, t can have two components 𝑡3 = + 2 for proton and 𝑡3 = − 2 for neutron.

In analogy to the spin 𝑠⃗ (being related to Pauli spin matrices)

𝜏⃗ = 2𝑡⃗

The three components of 𝜏⃗ are given by

0 1 0 −𝑖 1 0
𝜏1 = ( ), 𝜏 = ( ) and 𝜏3 = ( )
1 0 2 𝑖 0 0 −1

The third component of 𝜏⃗ i.e., 𝜏3 for proton and neutron are given by +1 and -1 respectively.
The charge of each nucleon can thus be written as
𝑒
𝑄 = ( 1 + 𝜏3 )
2
Therefore, for a proton 𝑄 = +𝑒
and for neutron 𝑄 = 0.
For a complex nucleus containing Z protons and N neutrons

𝑍 𝑁 𝑍 𝐴−𝑍 1
𝑇3 = ∑𝑖 𝑡𝑖3 = ∑𝑖 (𝑡𝑝3 + 𝑡𝑛3 ) = 2 − = 2− = − 2 (𝐴 − 2𝑍)
2 2

As the component cannot exceed the magnitude of the vector

𝑁−𝑍
⃗⃗| = 𝑇 ≥ |
|𝑇 |
2
Since, for a given A, there may be different combinations of N and Z values, T3 will be different
for different nuclei with same A.
Let us find the isospin for a two nucleon system. There are three possibilities: (p,p); (p,n) and
(n,n).
The possible values of 𝑇3 = +1, 0, −1 for (p,p); (p,n) and (n,n) respectively.

Hence, in analogy to the spin multiplicity, the isospin multiplicity is given by (2𝑇 + 1). For the
two nucleon system, it can be seen to be an isospin triplet.
Similarly, if we consider A = 14, we know there are only three nuclei known to exist in nature or
14 14
artificially for this A viz., 6𝐶8 , 7𝑁7 and 148𝐶6 .

We can calculate 𝑇3 = +1, 0, −1 for C, N and O respectively.

Therefore, T = 1 and isospin multiplicity = 3.

It has been observed that isospin is conserved in nuclear interactions in the same manner as the
conservation of total nuclear angular momentum.