Nuclear and particle physics

Lecture 16 Prof. Guy Wilkinson

guy.wilkinson@physics.ox.ac.uk

Michaelmas Term 2021

Particle physics handouts set 1:
Introduction Hadrons, quarks & the strong interaction
• The Standard Model • Hadrons & their quantum numbers
• Natural units • The light quark model
• Feynman diagrams • Colour & QCD
• Quarkonia
• The R ratio
 Strangeness
New quantum numbers were assigned to label the particles according to their properties.
`Strange’ particles were so-named as they
had the seemingly unusual properties of:

• Being produced in pairs – known as

‘associated production’.
(Here it’s important to appreciate
that the only production processes being
studied were all via strong interaction.)

• Relatively long lived, which is explained

by the fact that the particles can only
decay via the weak interaction.

A quantum number of strange was assigned,

which is conserved in strong (& electromagnetic) processes, but not in weak interactions.
We now know that strangeness is just one of six individual quark flavours, and that
the strong (and electromagnetic) interaction conserves flavour and the weak
interaction (or more specifically the weak-charged interaction) does not.
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 Isospin and nucleon-nucleon scattering
Consider the following reactions:
𝑝 + 𝑝 → 𝑑 + 𝜋+
𝑝 + 𝑛 → 𝑑 + 𝜋0
𝑛 + 𝑛 → 𝑑 + 𝜋−

The ȁ𝐼, 𝐼3ۧ of the final states are ȁ1, 1ۧ for 𝑑 + 𝜋 + , ȁ1, 0ۧ for 𝑑 + 𝜋 0 and ȁ1, −1ۧ for 𝑑 + 𝜋 − .
For the initial states we have ȁ1, 1ۧ for 𝑝 + 𝑝 and ȁ1, −1ۧ for 𝑛 + 𝑛. However, 𝑝 + 𝑛, which
has 𝐼3 = 0, can be produced by either ȁ1, 0ۧ or ȁ0, 0ۧ, and so is a superposition of both.

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Isospin and nucleon-nucleon scattering
The cross section is 𝜎 ∝ 𝜓final ȁ𝐻 𝜓initial 2 with 𝐻 an isospin operator that
gives an amplitude 𝑀 is connecting an 𝐼 = 1 and 𝐼 = 1 state, but zero if connecting
𝐼 = 0 and 𝐼 = 1, since Isospin is conserved. Therefore the cross sections are:

𝜎𝑝𝑝→𝑑𝜋+ ∝ 𝑀 2
1
𝜎𝑝𝑛→𝑑𝜋0 ∝ 𝑀2
2
2
𝜎𝑛𝑛→𝑑𝜋− ∝ 𝑀

And the following ratio is expected

𝜎(𝑝 + 𝑛 → 𝑑 + 𝜋 0 ) 1
=
𝜎(𝑝 + 𝑝 → 𝑑 + 𝜋 + ) 2

This is what is seen, at least for 𝑝 + 𝑝 (the 𝑛 + 𝑛 study is experimentally challenging…).

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 Spin and parity
Particles are labelled by their spin 𝐽 and intrinsic parity 𝑃, where the latter can be positive
or negative, i.e. 𝐽 𝑃 = 0−, 1− , 3/2+ etc. You are very familiar with the concept of spin.
For particles it is determined through angular distribution of decay products, and insisting
that angular momentum is conserved in a reaction. Parity needs more discussion.
A parity operation is a discrete transformation that inverts spatial coordinates:

෠ 𝑟Ԧ = 𝜓(−𝑟Ԧ )
𝑃𝜓 i.e. (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) → (−𝑥, −𝑦, −𝑧)

Vectors, e.g. position 𝑟Ԧ or momentum 𝑝Ԧ invert sign under 𝑃෠ whereas axial vectors,
such as angular momentum 𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝, Ԧ remain unchanged. The laws of classical physics
are invariant under a parity transformation. Now let us consider a quantum system.
The spatial part of the wavefunction is that describing the orbital angular momentum.
Consider, e.g., the spherical-harmonic wavefunction in a hydrogen atom 𝑌𝑙𝑚 (𝜃, 𝜙).
We note that the spatial inversion 𝑟Ԧ → −𝑟Ԧ corresponds to 𝜃 → 𝜋 − 𝜃 and 𝜙 → 𝜋 + 𝜙.
෠ 𝑙𝑚 𝜃, 𝜙 = −1 𝑙 𝑌𝑙𝑚 (𝜃, 𝜙)
𝑃𝑌
The orbital angular momentum wavefunction is an eigenstate of 𝑃෠ with eigenvalues (−1)𝑙 .
The 𝑙 = 0,2,4, … (s,d,g…) states have even parity & the 𝑙 = 1,3,5 … (p,f,h…) odd parity.
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 Intrinsic and total parity
It was assumed that parity must be conserved in the strong interaction, as in electro-
magnetism and all the laws of classical physics. This means that that the total parity
of the initial state of a reaction must equal that of the final state. For this to work,
we need to assign intrinsic parity to particles and calculate the total parity thus:

𝑃 = ෑ 𝑃𝑖 (−1)𝑙 where 𝑃𝑖 is the intrinsic parity of particle 𝑖.

𝑖

For example, consider the observed decay 𝜌0 → 𝜋 +𝜋 −. What is the parity of the 𝜌0 ?

The 𝜌0 has 𝐽 = 1, the pions have 𝐽 = 0. Furthermore,

the pions have negative parity* (see problem sheet IV).
In order to conserve angular momentum the two pions
must be in an 𝑙 = 1 state. Therefore final-state parity is:
𝑃𝜌 = 𝑃𝜋 × 𝑃𝜋 × (−1)1 = −1
Hence the 𝜌0 has negative parity, and so has 𝐽 𝑃 = 1−.

* In fact here we even don’t need to know this; all we need to know is
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that the parity of an anti-particle is unchanged from that of the particle.
 Intrinsic and total parity
It was assumed that parity must be conserved in the strong interaction, as in electro-
magnetism and all the laws of classical physics. This means that that the total parity
of the initial state of a reaction must equal that of the final state. For this to work,
we need to assign intrinsic parity to particles and calculate the total parity thus.

𝑃 = ෑ 𝑃𝑖 (−1)𝑙 where 𝑃𝑖 is the intrinsic parity of particle 𝑖.

𝑖
It will be the case that the intrinsic parity of almost all mesons
we consider
For example, encounter will
the be negative,
observed decayand
𝜌0 that
→ 𝜋of
+ 𝜋baryons
− . Whatpositive,
is the parity of the 𝜌0 ?
but there certainly exist examples where this is not so.
0 has 𝐽 = 1, the pions have 𝐽 = 0. Furthermore,
The 𝜌
Also useful to note that the photon has negative parity.
the pions have negative parity* (see problem sheet IV).
In order to conserve angular momentum the two pions
must be in an 𝑙 = 1 state. Therefore final-state parity is:
𝑃𝜌 = 𝑃𝜋 × 𝑃𝜋 × (−1)1 = −1
Hence the 𝜌0 has negative parity, and so has 𝐽 𝑃 = 1−.

* In fact here we even don’t need to know this; all we need to know is
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that the parity of an anti-particle is unchanged from that of the particle.
 The Δ resonances
As well as particles observed directly, other extremely short-lived states were discovered
as resonances, the first of which was the Δ at 1236 MeV/c2, produced in 𝜋𝑁 scattering
(e.g. 𝜋 + + 𝑝, 𝜋 − + 𝑝 etc.), and first seen by Fermi in 1952 using a new cyclotron at Chicago.

Pion energy varied, and cross section

variation inferred from change of activity
in downstream scintillator planes.

FWHM of resonance indicated that

𝜋 + 𝑝 → anything the intermediate state was very
short lived indeed:

Γ ≈ 100 MeV ⇒ 𝜏~10−23s !

Γ A peak at the same location and

width, but different cross section
was also seen in 𝜋 − 𝑝 scattering.
Calculating pion-nucleon scattering with isospin
Consider the three reactions 𝜋 + + 𝑝 → 𝜋 + + 𝑝 , 𝜋 − + 𝑝 → 𝜋 − + 𝑝 & 𝜋 − + 𝑝 → 𝜋 0 + 𝑛.
The initial & final states are superpositions of 𝐼 = 3/2 and 𝐼 = 1/2 isospin amplitudes,
with the coefficients coming from the Clebsch-Gordon coefficients of spin algebra.

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Calculating pion-nucleon scattering with isospin
The cross section is
2
𝜎 ∝ 𝜓final ȁ𝐻 𝜓initial
with 𝐻 an isospin operator that is
𝐻1 if operating on an 𝐼=1/2 state &
𝐻2 if operating on an 𝐼 = 3/2 state.
Isospin conservation means there is
no operator connecting 𝐼=1/2 & 𝐼=3/2.
Writing
1 1 3 3
𝑀1 = 𝜓(𝐼 = 2)final ȁ𝐻1 𝜓(𝐼 = 2)initial and 𝑀3 = 𝜓(𝐼 = 2)final ȁ𝐻3 𝜓(𝐼 = 2)initial

𝜎𝜋+𝑝→𝜋+𝑝 ∝ 𝑀3 2
yields the following results for 1
𝜎𝜋−𝑝→𝜋−𝑝 ∝ 𝑀3 + 2𝑀1 2
the three cross sections: 9
2
𝜎𝜋−𝑝→𝜋0𝑛 ∝ 𝑀3 − 𝑀1 2
9

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Calculating pion-nucleon scattering with isospin
2
𝜎𝜋+𝑝→𝜋+𝑝 ∝ 𝑀3
𝜎𝜋+𝑝 9 𝑀3 2
total
1 =
𝜎 𝜋 −𝑝→𝜋 −𝑝 ∝ 𝑀3 + 2𝑀1 2 𝜎𝜋−𝑝 𝑀3 + 2𝑀1 2 + 2 𝑀3 − 𝑀1 2
9 total
2
𝜎𝜋−𝑝→𝜋0𝑛 ∝ 𝑀3 − 𝑀1 2
9

Thus, if the Δ is a pure 𝐼=3/2 state

then we would expect
𝜎𝜋+𝑝
total
=3
𝜎𝜋−𝑝 total

and if 𝐼 = 1/2
𝜎𝜋+𝑝
total
=0
𝜎𝜋−𝑝
total

The data clearly support the former.