(Bound state of n+p)

Nuclide
notation
➢ If it was possible, then nuclei would have masses: 𝑚𝑁 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛
𝐴
➢ Through experiments (Mass Spectrographs), it was shown that mass of a neutral atom 𝑚𝐴 𝑍𝑋𝑁 to a closest integer,
is a multiple of 𝐴.
➢ Like 𝑍, 𝐴 is characteristic of a nuclide and is a conserved quantity (related to the law of conservation of Baryons)
➢ 1 Atomic Mass ≡ 1Τ12 mass of a neutral 126𝐶6 atom; 1 amu ≡ 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉 Τ𝑐 2
Electric moments depend on the charge distribution inside the nucleus.
Multipole Expansion for electrostatic potential:
Tut #2:
Prob. 1: What is the % error in neglecting the electronic binding energy in the hydrogen
atom 1𝐻, 13.6 𝑒𝑉 in the calculation of the nuclear mass of the atom from its atomic
mass and the mass of electron? [Atomic mass: 1.007825 u, 𝑚𝑒 : 5.485810-4 amu]

Prob. 2: Consider a deformed nucleus (shape of an ellipsoid, long axis 10% longer
than short axis). If you compute the electric potential at the first Bohr radius, what
accuracy can you expect if you treat the nucleus as a point charge?
Tut. #3, Source: Krane
Evidence of Pairing Force:
o If paired nucleons move in spherically symmetric
orbits, they will NOT contribute to 𝑄.
o 𝑄 can be estimated from the valence nucleon;
1
Orbits near the surface of nucleus (𝑟 = 𝑅0 𝐴 Τ3 ).
o 𝑒𝑄 ~0.06 𝑒. 𝑏 for light nuclei.
o 𝑒𝑄 ~0.5 𝑒. 𝑏 for heavy nuclei.
o Nuclei in rare-earth region are far outside this
range.
o 𝑄 gives important information – single particle
model CAN NOT explain the large observed
values; the assumption of spherically symmetric
core of paired nucleons is NOT valid for these
nuclei. Instead, the core takes on non-spherical
shape.
Analogous problem in optics- Diffraction of waves at a
small obstacle (or slit).
3 features of the optical diffraction (by the obstacle), that are
analogous to the scattering of nucleons:
o Inc. Wave – PLANE; far from the obstacle it is SPHERICAL.
Total energy content of any expanding spherical wave front is
constant ⇒ Intensity ∝ 𝑟 −2 , Amplitude ∝ 𝑟 −1
o Along the surface of any spherical scattered wave front, the
intensity depends on 𝜃 and 𝜙.
o Detector placed at any point from the obstacle records both-
inc. & scattered waves.
Analogous problem in optics- Diffraction of waves at a
small obstacle (or slit).
3 features of the optical diffraction (by the obstacle), that are
analogous to the scattering of nucleons:
o Inc. Wave – PLANE; far from the obstacle it is SPHERICAL.
Total energy content of any expanding spherical wave front is
constant ⇒ Intensity ∝ 𝑟 −2 , Amplitude ∝ 𝑟 −1
o Along the surface of any spherical scattered wave front, the
intensity depends on 𝜃 and 𝜙.
o Detector placed at any point from the obstacle records both-
inc. & scattered waves.
 To be solved in CoM frame
with ‘m’ as reduced mass

Impact Parameter, 𝑏 ≈ 𝑅~2 fm

𝟏𝟎 𝑴𝒆𝑽

𝟏𝟎 𝑴𝒆𝑽
 𝒖𝒊𝒏𝒄 𝒓 =

𝒖𝒊𝒏𝒄 𝒓 = 𝑨 sin 𝑘1 𝑟

again sin/ cos 𝒖𝒕𝒐𝒕 𝒓

𝒖𝒕𝒐𝒕 𝒓
 • For V0 → 0, no scattering,  → 0, k1 → k2.

• For non-zero V0 , its effect is seen at r  R; u(r)

experiences a phase shift .

• For attractive scattering pot., the “zeros” of u(r) are pulled

toward the origin (positive ).

• For repulsive scattering pot., the “zeros” of u(r) are

pushed away from the origin (negative ).

One analyses the inc. waves into components according to

their ℓ values relative to the target.

Associated with each ℓ there will be a different solution to

the S.E. and a different 𝛿ℓ.

We shall continue with ℓ = 0 for mathematical simplicity,

however there is no restriction on higher values of ℓ.; hence
The effect of V0 is to shift the phase of the scattered wave at phase shift will be expressed as 𝛿0 .
points beyond the scattering regions.
 Q.M. revisited
(𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐. & 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡. 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) ➢ In the scat. expt. a steady incident beam is maintained for an
indefinitely long time, i.e., the incident flux F (# of particles
crossing unit area taken normal to the beam direction per unit
time) is independent of time.
➢ Then, there is also a steady stream of scattered particles.
𝔷Ƹ ⟶
➢ Let ΔN be the # of particles scattered into a small solid angle ΔΩ
about the direction (θ, ϕ) in time Δt.

𝑑𝜎 𝜃,𝜑 𝑑𝜎 𝜃,𝜑
o Evidently, ΔN  Finc.. ΔΩ. Δt  ΔN = Finc.. dΩ. dt, where  Differential scattering cross-section
𝑑𝛺 𝑑𝛺
o Quantum Mechanically, tot = inc.+sc. Monoenergetic beam of inc. particles has mom. 𝒑 = ℏ𝒌, therefore, the sc
has the same amplitude (𝑨) and mom. (𝒌) as that of the incident wave
o Interpretation of inc 𝟐 : # of particles per unit volume, , the incident flux is: Finc. = inc 𝟐 .v = inc 𝟐 . ℏ𝒌Τ𝒎
𝑑𝜎 𝜃,𝜑
o Here, inc = A.𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑧 , therefore, Finc = 𝐴 2 , and ΔN = 𝐴 2 . ΔΩ. Δt
𝑑𝛺
𝒆𝒊𝒌𝒓
o Further, the Radial scattering flux, i.e., sc 𝟐 . ℏ𝒌Τ𝒎
must decrease as (1/r2), , sc  (1/r) ⇒ 𝝍𝒔𝒄 = 𝑨. 𝒇 𝜽, 𝝋 𝒓

o Now, ΔN = Radial scattering flux ∗ r2 d dt ⇒ ΔN = sc 𝟐 . ℏ𝒌Τ𝒎 . r2 d dt = 𝐴 𝟐

𝒇 𝜽, 𝝋 𝟐
𝒅𝛀 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝝈 𝜽,𝝋
o Comparing the two expressions for ΔN, we get = 𝒇 𝜽, 𝝋 𝟐;
𝒇 𝜽, 𝝋 : Scattering Cross-section
𝒅𝜴
 𝜷ℓ ∶ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℓ𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
• In general, |ℓ|  1, however for elastic scattering, |ℓ| = 1
• For simplicity, we will study for ℓ = 0, i.e., ℓ will be 0 and 𝜷ℓ will be 𝜷𝟎
𝑨 𝑨
• Recall, for ℓ = 0, tot = inc + sc  sc = 𝜼𝟎 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒓 − 𝒆−𝒊 𝒌𝒓 − 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒓 − 𝒆−𝒊 𝒌𝒓
𝟐𝒊𝒌𝒓 𝟐𝒊𝒌𝒓
𝑨 𝑨 𝑨 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒓+𝜷𝟎 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒓
• sc = 𝒆𝒊𝜷𝟎 . 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒓 − 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒓 = − ; Recall, utot(r) r.tot(r)=C sin(kr+0)
𝟐𝒊𝒌𝒓 𝟐𝒊𝒌𝒓 𝟐𝒊𝒌 𝒓 𝒓

𝐶 𝐶 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑟+𝛿0 −𝑒 −𝑖 𝑘𝑟+𝛿0 𝑪 −𝒊𝜹 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒓+𝟐𝜹𝟎 𝒆−𝒊𝒌𝒓

 tot(r) = sin 𝑘𝑟 + 𝛿0 = = 𝒆 𝟎 −
𝑟 𝑟 2𝑖 𝟐𝒊 𝒓 𝒓
 o jsc is uniformly distributed over a sphere of rad. r
o An area element r2d on the sphere subtends a solid angle
d at the scattering center.
o By defn., dΤd is the probability per unit solid angle that
an incident particle is scattered into solid angle d
o Therefore, the prob. d that an incident particle is scattered
into d is the ratio of the scattered current through d to the
incident current.
jsc r2 d 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜹𝟎
o  d =
j𝒊𝒏𝒄
= d
𝒌𝟐
o Total Cross section () is the prob. to be scattered in any
direction

d
𝜎=න d
d
d 𝟒𝝅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜹𝟎
For ℓ = 0, dΤd is constant  σ = 4π =
d 𝒌𝟐
square-well potential
 Deuteron wave
function

𝒖ℓ,𝒕𝒐𝒕 𝒓 𝒖ℓ,𝒊𝒏𝒄. 𝒓

𝒖ℓ,𝒕𝒐𝒕 𝒓
𝒖ℓ,𝒊𝒏𝒄. 𝒓
The effect of V0 is to shift the phase of the scattered wave at
points beyond the scattering regions.
 o jsc is uniformly distributed over a sphere of rad. r
o An area element r2d on the sphere subtends a solid angle
d at the scattering center.
o By defn., dΤd is the probability per unit solid angle that
an incident particle is scattered into solid angle d
o Therefore, the prob. d that an incident particle is scattered
into d is the ratio of the scattered current through d to the
incident current.
jsc r2 d 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜹𝟎
o  d =
j𝒊𝒏𝒄
= d
𝒌𝟐
o Total Cross section () is the prob. to be scattered in any
direction

d
𝜎=න d
d
d 𝟒𝝅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜹𝟎
For ℓ = 0, dΤd is constant  σ = 4π =
d 𝒌𝟐
 o Experimental  for scattering of n by p a
const. value of  20 b at low energy;
approx. 4.5 higher than calculated value.
o Theoretically, if one solves for  = f(E); 
decreases with E at large energy (matches
with experimental results)
o Let us explore the relative spins of the
incident and scattered nucleons to
understand the discrepancy.
o Total Spin 𝑆 = 𝑠𝑝 + 𝑠𝑛 ; it can be 0 OR 1.
o 𝑆 = 1 → 3 possible orientations of 𝑠𝑧 , namely 1, 0, -1. (Triplet state)
o 𝑆 = 0 → single orientation of 𝑠𝑧 , namely 0. (Singlet state)
o As the inc. nucleon approaches the target, prob. of it being in triplet is 3Τ4, while that being in singlet is 1Τ4.
o Let t be the scat. cross-sec. for triplet, and that s for the singlet (both different) then, 𝜎 = 3Τ4 𝜎𝑡 + 1Τ4 𝜎𝑠
o Estimation of ; we took Deuteron parameters, i.e., 𝑆 = 1,  t = 4.4 b.
o Measured value is  = 20.25 b  𝜎𝑠 = 4 × 𝜎 − 3Τ4 𝜎𝑡 = 67.8 b
o Enormous difference between  s in singlet & triplet state  Nuclear force must be SPIN dependent !!
Same conclusions follow in scatt. expt. from a) spin-up,
OR b) spin-down polarized target
 Let us understand by SO interaction
o S=1
o 𝑠-wave ℓ = 0 scattering → No Polarization
o 𝑝-wave ℓ = 1 scattering of identical
Spin ↑ nucleons having S = 1, have anti-
symmetric spatial wave function
o Assume that 𝑉ℓ𝑠 𝑟 is negative
o For nucleon #1, SO interaction potential
produced force is positive (repulsive)
Spin ↑ between target and inc. nucleon #1
o For nucleon #2, SO interaction potential
produced force is negative (attractive)
between target and inc. nucleon #2
Spin ↑
o Polarized p-p scattering experiment

o With an increase in energy of the

incident p, the polarization increases
Summary:
𝑉𝑁𝑁 𝑟Ԧ
= 𝑉𝑐 𝑟 + 𝑉𝑠 𝑟 𝜎1 . 𝜎2
+ 𝑉ℓ𝑠 𝑟 ℓ. 𝑠Ԧ + 𝑉𝑇 𝑟 𝑠1 . 𝑠2
Argument #2 (to support the presence of exchange forces in nuclei :)
o Qualitative explanation of the Exchange Force Model :
during the collision, the neutron and proton exchange
takes place.
o A forward-moving neutron becomes a proton, and a
backward-moving proton (CoM frame) becomes a
neutron
o The incident nucleon then reappears, in the lab frame, as
a forward-moving nucleon (now a proton); consistent
with estimate of small angle deflection in nucleon-
nucleon scattering
Summary- saturation of nuclear forces and strong
backward peak in np scattering can be explained by
exchange forces.
• “Something” is exchanged between nucleons to
produce a bond.
• “Something” is exchanged between nucleons that
changes their character.

n-p 𝑑𝜎Τ𝑑Ω at medium energies; strong forward peak (near 0∘ ) is expected, equally strong backward peak (near
180∘ ) is observed ⟶ evidence for the exchange force
o For short range (0.5 to 1.0 fm), two-pion exchange is responsible for the nuclear binding.

o At further shorter ranges (0.25 fm), exchange of 𝜔 mesons (783 MeV) is responsible for the repulsive core whereas
the exchange of 𝜌 mesons (769 MeV) is responsible for spin-obit part of the interaction.
𝑵→

𝒁→

Segre Chart of stable nuclides

Tut. Problems
1) Compare the strength of nuclear force with that of electromagnetic force by taking an example of 16O nucleus.
Hint: Consider the Coulomb repulsive force in assembling a uniform charged sphere of radius R.

2) In liquid drop model, find the analogies between observed nuclear properties with that of a liquid drop. What are
the limitations of liquid drop model?

3) Consider a 3D particle-in-a-box problem and solve for its energy eigen value, namely, 𝐸 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 for a nucleon
as discussed during lecture. (Consider radius of the nucleus  10 fm)

If 𝐸 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 = 𝐸0 𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 + 𝑛𝑧 2 , find the value of E0 in eV (or any order of eV).

Prepare a table with 4 columns as mentioned below:
▪ Electrons occupy the lowest
energy orbitals available.
▪ Each orbital can hold only 2
electrons, which must be of
opposite spins.
▪ Two or more orbitals with the
same energy are each half-
filled by one electron before
any one orbital is completely
filled by addition of the
second electron.
2-proton separation energies
(𝑆2𝑝 ) of sequences of isotones;
the lowest 𝒁 member of each
sequence is noted
2-neutron separation energies
(𝑆2𝑛 ) of sequences of isotopes;
the lowest 𝒁 member of each
sequence is noted
o Sudden changes at the
indicated “magic numbers” are
apparent leading to a good
guess these sharp
discontinuities correspond to
the filling of major shells.
o Figure shows the measured
separation energies, plotted as
deviations from the predictions
of SEMF.
Shell effects are more apparent!
Tut Problems
Q.1) For stable heavier nuclei (𝐴 ≥ 200), the energy required to remove a proton from the nucleus is
more than that for a neutron. Explain this fact qualitatively as well as quantitatively, assuming that the
specific nuclear forces are exactly equal between all pairs of nucleons.

Q.2) α-particle emission is a common phenomenon in radioactive heavy nuclei but proton-radioactivity
is virtually nonexistent. Explain it with relevant quantitative arguments.