NEAR EAST UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

SPRING SEMESTER 2020-2021 season
CIV372 H y d r o m e c h a n i c s
Chapter One: Introduction to Hydromechanics: part 2
Physical Properties of Fluids
Example 1.3

Consider a fluid flow between two parallel fixed plates 5cm apart, as
shown in Fig. below. The velocity distribution for the flow is given by
u(y) = 120(0.05y-y2) m/s where y is in meters. The fluid is water at
10°C. Calculate the magnitude of the shear stress acting on each of
the plates.
Solution

• The shear stress can be calculated using τ=μ|du/dy|. From the given
velocity distribution
Example 1.4.

For two 0.2-m-long rotating concentric cylinders, the velocity

distribution is given by u(r) =0.4/r- 1000r m/s. If the diameters of the
cylinders are 2cm and 4cm, respectively, calculate the fluid viscosity if
the torque on the inner cylinder is measured to be 0.0026 Nm.
Solution
Example 1.5
The viscosity of water at 20°C is 0.001 Ns/m2 and at 80°C it is 3.57 x10-
4 Ns/m2. Using Andrade’s equation μ =AeB/T estimate the viscosity of

water at 40°C. Determine the percent error.

Solution
Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity

• Viscosity can be made independent of fluid density; kinematic

viscosity() is defined as the ratio Dynamic Viscosity( )

𝑣=

Where:  in (m2/s) (Length2/Time
 is in N.s/m2 N (Mass/Length/Time)
Viscosities of air and water
Compressibility

• All fluids compress if the pressure increases, resulting in a decrease

in volume or an increase in density.

• A common way to describe the compressibility of a fluid is by the

following definition of the bulk modulus of elasticity B:
 Cont’d

• In words, the bulk modulus, also called the coefficient of

compressibility, is defined as the ratio of the change in pressure (p )
to relative change in density ( /  ) while the temperature remains
constant.
• The bulk modulus has the same units as pressure.
• The bulk modulus can also be used to calculate the speed of sound
in a liquid; it will be shown to be given by
Example

What is the volume change of 2m3 of water at 20°C due to an applied

pressure of 10 MPa? Given the B at 20oc is 2200.
Solution
Example

A pressure is applied to 20L of water. The volume is observed to

decrease to 18.7L. Calculate the applied pressure.
Solution
Surface Tension

• Surface tension is a property that results from the attractive forces

between molecules.
• It manifests itself only in liquids at an interface, usually a liquid-gas
interface.
• The forces between molecules in the bulk of a liquid are equal in all
directions, and as a result, no net force is exerted on the molecules.
• However, at an interface the molecules exert a force that has a
resultant in the interface layer.
• This force holds a drop of water suspended on a rod and limits the
size of the drop that may be held.
• It also causes the small drops from as prayer or atomizer to assume
spherical shapes.
• It may also play a significant role when two immiscible liquids (e.g.,
oil and water) are in contact with each other
 Cont’d

Fig. Internal forces in (a) a droplet and (b) a bubble.

 Cont’d

• Surface tension has units of force per unit length, N/m.

• The force due to surface tension results from a length multiplied by
the surface tension
• The length to use is the length of fluid in contact with a solid, or the
circumference in the case of a bubble.
• A surface tension effect can be illustrated by considering the free-
body diagrams of half a droplet and half a bubble in fig. above.
• The droplet has one surface, and the bubble is composed of a thin
film of liquid with an inside surface and an outside surface.
• An expression for the pressure inside the droplet and bubble can
now be derived.
 Cont’d
• The pressure force pπR2 in the droplet balances the surface tension
force around the circumference. Hence

• Similarly, the pressure force in the bubble is balanced by the surface

tension forces on the two circumferences assuming the bubble
thickness is small. Therefore

• The internal pressure in a bubble is twice as large as that in a droplet

of the same size
 Cont’d
• Figure below shows the rise of a liquid in a clean glass capillary tube
due to surface tension.

• The liquid makes a contact angle  with the glass tube.

• Experiments have shown that this angle for water and most liquids
in a clean glass tube is zero.

• There are also cases for which this angle is greater than 90° (e.g.,
mercury); such liquids have a capillary drop.

• If h is the capillary rise, D the diameter, ρ the density, and σ the

surface tension, h can be determined from equating the vertical
component of the surface tension force to the weight of the liquid
column:
 Cont’d

rearranged

Fig. Rise in a capillary tube.

Surface tension may influence engineering problems when, for example,

laboratory modeling of waves is conducted at a scale that surface tension forces
are of the same order of magnitude as gravitational forces.
Example 1.4

A 2-mm-diameter clean glass tube is inserted in water at 15°C.Given

the σ of 0.0741N/m, determine the height that the water will climb up
the tube. The water makes a contact angle of 0° with the clean glass.
Solution
Example

Calculate the pressure in the small 10μm-diameter droplets that are

formed by spray machines. Assume the properties to be the same as
water at 15°C . Calculate the pressure for bubbles of the same size.
Solution
Given: D=10x10-6m, T=15oc
Example

In diesel engines diesel fuel is injected directly into the engine cylinder
during the compression stroke where the average air pressure could
reach 8000 KPa. Assuming that liquid fuel droplets are formed as the
fuel flows from the injector, determine the interior pressure in a 5μm
diameter spherical droplet. The surface tension for diesel fuel in air is
0.025 N/m.
Solution
Given
P=8000Kpa
D= 5μm
σ =0.025N/m
 Cont’d

The droplet is assumed to be spherical. The pressure inside the

droplet is greater than the outside pressure of 8000 kPa. The
difference is given by
Vapor Pressure
• When a small quantity of liquid is placed in a closed container, a
certain fraction of the liquid will vaporize.

• Vaporization will terminate when equilibrium is reached between

the liquid and gaseous states of the substance in the container—in
other words, when the number of molecules escaping from the
water surface is equal to the number of incoming molecules.

• The pressure resulting from molecules in the gaseous state is the

vapor pressure.

• The vapor pressure is highly dependent on temperature

 Cont’d

• It increases significantly when the temperature increases

• The water vapor pressure at 100°C is equal to the standard
atmospheric pressure.
• At that temperature the water is boiling
• The liquid state of the water can no longer be sustained
• The attractive forces are not sufficient to contain the molecules in a
liquid phase.
• In general, a transition from the liquid state to the gaseous state
occurs if the local absolute pressure is less than the vapor pressure
of the liquid.
• At high elevations where the atmospheric pressure is relatively low,
boiling occurs at temperatures less than 100°C
• In liquid flows, conditions can be created that lead to a pressure
below the vapor pressure of the liquid. When this happens, bubbles
are formed locally.
• This phenomenon, called cavitation, can be very damaging when
these bubbles are transported by the flow to higher-pressure
regions.
• What happens is that the bubbles collapse upon entering the higher-
pressure region, and this collapse produces local pressure spikes
which have the potential of damaging a pipe wall or a ship’s
propeller.
 Cont’d

• In liquid flows, conditions can be created that lead to a pressure

below the vapor pressure of the liquid. When this happens, bubbles
are formed locally.
• This phenomenon, called cavitation, can be very damaging when
these bubbles are transported by the flow to higher-pressure
regions.

Fig. A a cavitating propeller inside MIT’s water tunnel