CHAPTER 4:

FLUID MECHANICS
4. FLUID MECHANICS
4.1 Hydrostatics

4.2 Hydrodynamics

4.3 Viscosity
4.1 Hydrostatics
At the end of the lesson, students
should be able to:
• Explain buoyancy and apply
Archimedes’ principle
4.1 Hydrostatic
Density and Relative Density
• The density of an object, ρ is defined as its
mass, m per unit volume, V:

 •
S.I. unit : kg
Table below shows the densities of some
common substances.
Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

The relative density (specific gravity) of a material

is defined as the ratio of its density to the density
of water at 4.0 ° C :

It is a pure number without unit (dimensionless).

Pressure in a fluid
Definition – is defined as the normal force per unit
area.

The figures below show the pressure acting on

an element of fluid.
• Pressure
  is a scalar quantity.
• S.I. unit : @ Pa.

• Unit conversion :
1 = 1 Pa
1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
= 1.013 bar
= 14.70

• Pressure at any point acts equally in all

direction.
Variation of pressure with depth
Consider a thin element of fluid with mass, mas
shown in figure below.
The element of the fluid is in
equilibrium because the fluid
is at rest. Hence
The negative sign indicates that when y increases, P
decreases and vice versa.

By applying the equation above,

thus
Note :
• Pressure increases with depth.
• Pressure is the same at any two points at the same level
in the fluid.
• The shape of the container does not effect the pressure
at any point in the fluid as shown in figure below.
 Pascal’s Law
• States: Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid
is transmitted undiminished to every portion
of the fluid and the walls of its container.
• This principle is made use of in the hydraulic
jacks and lifts, dentist’s chairs, hydraulic
brakes and etc…
• The figure below shows the schematic
diagram of hydraulic lift to illustrates Pascal’s
law.
• A piston with small cross sectional area, A1 exerts a force,
F1 on the surface of a fluid. The applied pressure, p is
transmitted through the connecting pipe to a large piston
of area, A2. (Pascal’s law)
• The applied pressure is the same in both cylinders, so
Example 1 :

• 0.126
A   kg polo ball has a radius of 4.13 cm.
Calculate the mean density of the ball.
Solution:
From the definition of the density, thus
Example 2 :

• tapered,
A   pressurized tank for a rocket contains 0.250 of
kerosene, with mass 205 kg. The pressure at the top of the
kerosene is . The kerosene exerts a force of 18.0 kN on the
tank’s bottom, which has an area of 0.08 . Find the depth of
the kerosene. (Use g =9.81 )
Solution:

The density of the kerosene is given by

The pressure at the bottom of the tank is

By applying the equation below,

Example 3 :

 Infigure above, the cylinder L has a mass of 600 kg

and cross-sectional area of 800 . Piston S of negligible
weight has a cross-sectional area of 25 . If the system
is filled with oil of density 0.78 , calculate the force, F
required to maintain initial position. (Use g = 9.81 )
•  
Solution:

The force exerted on the oil in cylinder L is given by

The pressure at point X is equal to the pressure at point
Y, hence
Buoyancy
Archimedes’s principle states :
“When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid,
the fluid exerts an upward (buoyant) force on the body
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.”

• The buoyancy (Archimedes’s) principle is applied to

ships, submarine and hydrometer.
• Hydrometer is a simple instrument used to measure
density of liquids.
Example 4 :

• cubical
A   block of wood of side10.0 cm, floats at the
interface between oil and water with its lower surface
2.00 cm below the interface as shown in figure
below. The density of oil is 750 . Calculate
a. the gauge pressure at the upper surface of the
block.
b. b. the gauge pressure at the lower surface of the
block.
c. c. the mass of the block.
(Use the density of the water = 1000 and g = 9.81 )
 Solution: l=0.1 m , = 1000 , = 750
Example 5 :

•   the percentage of a floating ice cube’s volume above

Find
the water surface in the glass. (given the density of the ice
= 920 and the density of the water = 1000 ).
Solution:
=1000 , = 920
4.2 Hydrodynamics
At the end of the lesson, students
should be able to:
• Illustrate laminar flow and Newtonian
flow
• Use flow rate, continuity principle and
Bernoulli’s principle
Flow of Fluids
The characteristics of an ideal fluid:
• The fluid is incompressible – the density of the ideal
fluid is constant.
• The flow is steady (laminar)– the velocity of the fluid
at each point remains constant.
• The fluid is nonviscous – internal friction between
the fluid layers is neglected.
• The flow is irrotational – the fluid has no angular
velocity about any point (no turbulent occurs)
The path taken by a fluid particle under steady
(laminar) flow is called a streamline.
The figures below show the streamlines for
different shapes.
a. non-rotating sphere b. Venturi tube (meter)

c. Airplane wing (aerofoil)

Equation of continuity

Consider the steady

(laminar) flow of an ideal
fluid with density, ρ along a
tube with changing cross-
sectional area from A to B
as shown in figure.
Example 6 :

•  
Water is flowing in a cylindrical pipe of varying
cross-sectional area, and at all point the water
completely fills the pipe. If the volume rate of flow
in the pipe is 1.20 , find
a. the speed of the water at one point in the pipe
with radius, 0.200 m.
b. b. the radius of the pipe at second point in the
pipe where the speed of water is 3.80 .
Example 7 :

• pipe
A   with diameter 0.02 m contained water flowing
with a speed of 0.1 . A smaller tube with diameter 0.01
m is then joined to the pipe.
a. Write the continuity equation for the fluid flowing in
the pipe.
b. b. Calculate the speed of the water flowing in the
smaller tube.
c. c. Calculate the water flow rate.
Example 8 :

•   heart pumps blood into the aorta which has inner

The
radius of 1.0 cm. The aorta feeds 32 major arteries. If blood
in the aorta travels at the speed of , at approximately what
average speed does it travels in the arteries? Assume the
blood can be treated as an ideal fluid and that the arteries
each have an inner radius of 0.21 cm.
Solution:

From continuity eq.

 Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s principle states :

“For an ideal fluid, the pressure of the fluid is low

when its velocity is high. When its velocity is low,
its pressure is high.”

Consider the flow of an ideal fluid with density, ρ

along a tube with changing cross-sectional area in
a time interval ∆t as shown in figure below.
Example 9 :

•A large
  storage tank, open at the top and is filled
with water, develops a small hole in its side at a
point 12.0 m below the water level. If the diameter
of the hole is 0.5 cm, determine
a. the speed of the water leaving the hole.
b. b. the volume rate of flow.
(Use g = 9.81 )
4.3 Viscosity
At the end of the lesson, students
should be able to:
• Define viscosity of fluid
• Explain and use Stokes’ law
• Explain and use Poiseuille’s law
Viscosity
Definition – is defined as a measure of a fluid’s resistance
to flow.
Consider a thin layer of fluid between two parallel plate,
each of area, A as shown in figure (a).
Poiseuille’s Law

• As a fluid flowing through a pipe, there is a

frictional drag between the fluid and the walls,
and the fluid velocity is greater toward the center
of the pipe.
• The
  change in fluid velocity causes a difference in
the average flow rate of this fluid.
• The volume of fluid flowing per second in a pipe
depends on
i. The coefficient of viscosity, h
ii. The radius, r of the pipe
iii. The pressure gradient,
OR where : pressure difference
L: length
Poiseuille’s Law : volume flow rate
Example 10 :

•   water is supplied to a house by connecting horizontal

The
pipe 15 mm in diameter and 10 m long to a horizontal main
20 cm in diameter and 5 km long. Determine the fraction of
total pressure drop along the pipe between the ends of
narrow pipe, if water is drawn by this house only.
Solution:
Using Poiseuille’s Law:

The fraction required is

Example 11 :

• cardiologist
A   reports to her patient that the radius of the
left anterior descending artery of the heart has narrowed by
10%. What percent increase in the blood pressure drop
across the artery is required to maintain the normal blood
flow through this artery?
Solution:
Viscosity of blood is the same. To maintain normal blood
flow, volume flow rate is also the same. Same goes to the
length, also the same. Then from Poiseuille’s Law:

And
•   ratio of pressure drops,
The

• A factor of 1.52 means there is a 52% increase in the

blood pressure difference across the artery and must
provided by the heart.
• If the normal pressure drop across the artery is 10
mmHg, then it is now 15.2 mmHg.
• The person’s blood pressure either must increase by 5.2
mmHg or there will be reduction in blood flow through
the artery.
• The heart is under greater strain as it works harder,
attempting to maintain an adequate flow of blood.
Terminal Velocity and Stokes’ Law

•Terminal
  velocity,
Definition – is defined as the constant velocity
finally attained by a body moving through a fluid
under gravity when there is a zero net force acting
on it.
The figures below show the velocity against time
graphs in vacuum and fluid.
Stokes’ law
Example 12 :

•  
Calculate the magnitude of terminal velocity when
a gold ball of radius 2.00 mm is dropped in an oil
at 20°C. The viscous drag force acts on the gold
ball is one quarter of its weight.
(Given the coefficient of viscosity for oil, η =0.986 ,
density of the ,
)
Example 13 :

• steel
A   ball of diameter and density falls vertically
at constant speed through oil of density The oil
moves around the ball with laminar flow. The ball
falls through a distance of 25 cm in 0.65 s.
a. Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the
ball as it falls through the oil.
b. b. Calculate the viscous drag force on the
sphere.
c. c. Find the viscosity, η of the oil.
(Use g = 9.81 )
Exercises:
1. a) The height of the mercury column in a barometer is 760
mm. Find the pressure of the atmosphere in Pascal. 1.013 x 105
Pa
b) What is the height of mercury column in a barometer if the
atmospheric pressure is 98.7 kPa? 0.74 m
c) If mercury in a barometer is replaced by water, what is the
height of the water level at 1 atm pressure? 10.3 m
2. In a hydraulic press the large piston has a cross-sectional
area, A1 = 200 cm2 and the small piston has a cross-
sectional area, A2 = 5 cm2. If a force of 250 N is applied to
the small piston, what is the force, F1 acting on the large
piston? 10 kN
• A  boat with its cargo has a total mass of . Calculate
3.
a. the up thrust (buoyant) force on the boat when it is in
equilibrium.
b. the volume of the boat below the water line.
Use g=9.81 and the density of the water = 1000 ) Ans. :

4. A pipe with internal diameter 1.5 cm is connected to a

sprinkler which has 24 small holes of diameter 0.1 cm. If
the speed of water in the pipe is 9.0 ms -1, at what speed it
comes out from the sprinkler? 84.4 ms-1
5. Human blood flows at 3.0 x 10-3 ms-1 in an artery of diameter
20 µm. If the length is 6 mm and difference in pressure is 6480
Nm-2, calculate the viscosity of the blood. 4.5 x 10-5 Nsm-2

6. Our heart pumps bloods at rate of 8 x 10-5 m3s-1. The bloods

flow into 5 x 108 arterioles, each of radius 10-5 m and average
length 10-2 m. Calculate the difference in pressure across each
arteriole if the viscosity of the blood is 4 x 10-3 Nsm-2. 816 Nm-2
 THE END…
Next Chapter…
CHAPTER 5 :
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)