CHAPTER 3: Fluid Flow—Basic

Concepts— Hydrodynamics

BFC 10403
 BASIC SCIENTIFIC LAWS USED IN THE
ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
(i) Law of conservation of mass:
 This law when applied to a control volume states that the net mass flow
through the volume will equal the mass stored or removed from the
volume.
 Under conditions of steady flow this will mean that the mass leaving the
control volume should be equal to the mass entering the volume.
 The determination of flow velocity for a specified mass flow rate and flow
area is based on the continuity equation derived on the basis of this law.

(ii) Newton’s laws of motion:

 These are basic to any force analysis under various conditions of flow.
 The resultant force is calculated using the condition that it equals the rate
of change of momentum. The reaction on surfaces are calculated on the
basis of these laws.
(iii) Law of conservation of energy:
 Considering a control volume the law can be stated as “the energy flow
into the volume will equal the energy flow out of the volume under steady
conditions”.
 This also leads to the situation that the total energy of a fluid element in a
steady flow field is conserved.
 This is the basis for the derivation of Euler and Bernoulli equations for fluid
flow.

(iv) Thermodynamic laws:

 are applied in the study of flow of compressible fluids. This also leads to the
situation that the total energy of a fluid element in a steady flow field is
conserved.
Classification of Flow Pattern

 Steady uniform flow

Discharge (i.e. flow rate, or volume per unit time) is constant with time and
the cross section of the flow is also constant.
 Steady non-uniform flow
The discharge is constant with time, but the cross-section of flow changes.
 Unsteady uniform flow
The cross-section is constant but the discharge changes with time resulting in
complex flow patterns.
 Unsteady non-uniform flow
Both discharge and cross section vary.
 Visualization

To picture the motion of a fluid, we start by examining the motion of a single fluid ‘particle’ over time, or a
collection of particles at one instant. (Flow path of particle or streamline)

μ
A streamline is thus tangential to the velocity vectors
of the particles. Hence
1. There can be no flow across a streamline
2. Once fluid is on a streamline it cannot leave it
a
We extend this idea to a collection of paths of fluid particles to
create a streamtube

Streamlines and streamtubes are theoretical notions. In an

experiment, a streakline is formed by injecting dye into a fluid in
motion.
Law of Conservation Mass
Development
Applying the Law of Conservation of Mass to a control volume

For steady incompressible flow, the rate of mass increase is zero and the density
of the fluid does not change. Hence
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes

The total amount of mass contained within a control volume does not
change with time
Amount of mass flowing per unit time, that is, the mass
flow rate

Multiple inlets and exits

Single stream

Give the example engineering devices??

Incompressible Flow??
Example 1
The figure shows the nozzle with steady flow at 55 kg/s.
Determine the velocities at section 1 and 2 if diameter D1= 250
mm and D2= 90 mm
Example 2
Determine the velocities and flows in all three pipes if Q1 is 0.02
m3/s and velocity in Pipe 2, v2 is 3.0 m/s
Example 3
The figure shows the conduit has diameter of 20 cm and 45 cm at
section 1 and 2. If the water flowing in conduit at a 300 m/min at
section 2. Determine (1) velocity at section 1; (2) flow rate, mass flow
rate and weight flow rate at section 1 and 2
Law of conservation of energy
Development
The forms of energy in this system are:
Potential energy:
This is due to the height above an arbitrary datum. (elevation head)

Pressure energy:
The pressure in a fluid also does work by generating force on a cross section
which then moves through a distance. (pressure head)

Kinetic energy:
This is due to the motion of the mass of fluid. (velocity head)
Potential energy:
In terms of head (m)
Assume 1) Energy entering must equal the energy leaving
2) Fluid incompressibility, the density does not change

In terms of energies per unit mass?

In terms of pressure?
 Example 4
Water is flowing in a fire hose with a velocity of 1.0 m/s and a
pressure of 200 kPa. At the nozzle the pressure decreases to
atmospheric pressure, there is no change in height. Use the
Bernoulli equation to calculate the velocity of the water exiting
the nozzle.
 Example 5

Through a refinery, fuel ethanol is flowing in a pipe at a velocity of

1m/s and a pressure of 101.3 kPa. The refinery needs the ethanol
to be at a pressure of 2 atm on a lower level. How far must the pipe
drop in height in order to achieve this pressure? Assume the
velocity does not change (ρethanol = 789 kg/m3)
Example 6
The figure shows the circular stream flowing water from a
diameter of 25 mm to 15 mm in distance of 75 cm.
Determine the flowrate in L/s.

Q
 Application of the Bernoulli equation
PITOT TUBE
 Pitot tube is a device used for speed measurement.
 It is a simple tube with a 90 degree bend.
 It measures flow speed using the Bernoulli principle.

Show that fluid velocity at point 𝑥 is

x o

With a Pitot tube we actually measure the pressure

difference between points 𝑥 and o and convert this difference
to a velocity difference using the BE
USE OF PITOT TUBE WITH A PIEZOMETER
For the flow in a closed channel or pipe we need to use an additional
tube called the piezometer tube (static tube).

Proof as shown in Figure

Example 6
Water flows through the pipe contraction shown. For the
given 0.2 m difference in the manometer level, determine the
flowrate
SIPHON A siphon is a device that allows a liquid to be
drawn from a storage vessel without the use of a
pump

Proof that:

Use BE at point S and E,

𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝑐 ? ?
SIPHON A siphon is a device that allows a liquid to be drawn from a
storage vessel without the use of a pump

Example 7
Using Bernoulli’s equation with no
60 cm losses, a) Determine the velocity at
point 3 and exit
15 cm Free surface (1) and hose exit (2) 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
95 cm
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑧2 = −0.95 m 𝑣2 = 2𝑔(0.95)

Density is constant, thus, mass = 4.32 m/s

balance (ρQ) on the hose shows
that ρv2A = ρv3A 𝑣2 = 𝑣3 = 4.32 m/s
 b) Pressure occur at point 3
Point (3) and hose exit (2)

∗ 𝑣2 = 𝑣3
𝑃3 𝑣32 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧3 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑃3 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = (𝑧2 −𝑧3 )𝜌𝑔

𝑃3 = (𝑧2 −𝑧3 )𝜌𝑔

𝑃3 = −0.95 − 0.6 1000 × 9.81

𝑃3 = −15.206 kPa
Flow Measurement – Orifices
Consider the discharge of a liquid from a large reservoir through an orifice (hole).

BE between the free surface (1) and the orifice (2) is

𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 , Datum?, 𝑉1 ≈ 0

Discharge through the orifice with an area 𝐴𝑜 is

Q need to be corrected by Discharge Coefficient

Vena Contracta and Contraction Coefficient
Depending on the geometry of the orifice

Contraction coefficient
 The correct BE should be written between the free surface and the vena contracta
section Aj (not the exit section Ao)

The actual discharge would be even less due to viscous effects, disregarded in the BE
Velocity coefficient (𝐶𝑣) corrects this as follows (determined experimentally)

Discharge coefficient (𝐶𝑑) combines contraction and velocity coefficients as follows

Discharge through the orifice can be given as

Example 8
The figure show a tank with dimension 150 cm of length and 90 cm
width has a 0.05m diameter sharp edged orifice at the bottom,
which the discharge coefficient is 0.6. Water enters the tank at a
constant rate of 0.0095 m3/s.
(a) Find the depth of water above the orifice when the level in the
tank becomes stable.

𝑣2 = 2𝑔ℎ

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 stable

0.0095 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 2𝑔ℎ

ℎ = 3.314 m
(b) If water now runs into the tank at 0.02 m3/s, the orifice
remaining open, find the rate of rise in water level when the
level has reached a depth of 1.7m above the orifice.
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 0.02 m3/s
0.02
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 2𝑔(1.7)

= 0.0068
1.7 m v =?

𝑄𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 0.02 − 0.0068

= 0.0132 m3/s
𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴
𝑄 0.0132
𝑣= = = 9.78 × 10−3 m/s
𝐴 1.5 × 0.9
Discharge Measurement in Pipelines
The Venturi Meter The orifice Meter

General idea is
i. to place an obstacle inside the pipe and force the fluid to accelerate and
pass from a narrow area.
ii. measure the pressure difference between the low-velocity, high pressure
upstream and the high velocity, low-pressure downstream.
iii. use the BE to relate this pressure difference to the flow rate in the pipe.
Example 10
The figure show a Venturi meter in which
liquid of relative density of 0.86 flows 25 cm
downwards. Pressure gauges are fitted to the 95 cm
inlet and to the throat sections. The throat
being 95 cm below the inlet. Taking the 75 mm

discharge coefficient of the meter as 0.98

find the discharge
a) when the pressure gauges read the same
b) when the inlet gauge reads 25 kPa higher
than the throat gauge.

Information from question

𝑑1 = 0.25 m 𝑑2 = 0.075 m 𝜌 = 860 kg/m3

𝐴1 = 0.049 m2 𝐴2 = 0.0044 m2 𝐶𝑑 = 0.98

a) when the pressure gauges read the same

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22 25 cm
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 95 cm

Using continuity Datum 75 mm

𝐴1
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 Then, rearrange the BE to determine v1
𝐴2

𝑣1 = 0.39 m/s

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴1 𝑣1

𝑄 = 0.019 m3 /s
b) when the inlet gage reads 25 kPa higher than
the throat gage

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

1 1
𝑄2 −
𝐴22 𝐴12

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑣22 − 𝑣12
= − 𝑧1 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 25 kPa
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Rearrange the Eq.

𝑄 = 0.039 m3 /s
 The Momentum Equation
𝜕𝑡

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑄

The force required giving the change in momentum between the entry and
exit (rate of change of momentum) from Newton’s Second Law
Example 11
What force acts on the fireman’s nozzle as shown in figure,
assuming the inlet diameter is 60mm? The weight flow rate from
the pump is 0.196 KN/s and the water jet velocity is 45 m/s.

rate of change of momentum, 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )

𝑤 = 𝛾𝑄
𝑄 = 0.02 m3/s
Using continuity 𝑣1 = 7.07 m/s
Flow around a bend in a pipe
The net force must be equal to the change in
momentum (total force)

Thus in x-axis,
Similarly, for the y-direction

TOTAL FORCE PRESSURE FORCE

The resultant force is

FR

And which acts at an angle of

 Example 12
The figure show a pipeline with internal diameter of 60 cm carries
water with a velocity of 3 m/s under head of 30 m. Determine the
resultant force on the bend of 750 and its direction.

Information from question

V2 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 3 m/s
𝐴 = 0.283 m2

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 = 0.849 m3 /𝑠
30 m
V1 Force at x-direction

750
Force at y-direction

Resultant force

FR

Its direction
 Fluid Striking a Flat Surface
The velocity of the fluid normal to the surface is:

The mass flow rate, 𝑚 entering the control volume is

𝑚=

Hence:

The plate is perpendicular to the flow then

 Example 13
A 25 mm diameter jet of water yields 650 N of force against
a flat plate as shown in figure. Determine the flow in m3/s?

𝐹 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2

𝑄 = 0.018 m3/s

Flow
 Example 14
The figure shows a 75mm diameter jet of water having a
velocity of 25 m/s strikes a flat plate, which the normal
direction is inclined at 30° to the jet. Find the force normal to
the surface of the plate.

𝐹 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣(𝑣 cos 𝜃)

Flow
𝐹 = 2.39 kN