ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLES

Exercise: A pressure was applied to one limb of a mercury filled U- tube manometer and the level
difference was found to be 254 mm. Calculate the value of the applied pressure. Density of mercury is
13600 kg / m 3 .
Solution: P= ρ g h = 13600 x 0.254 x 9.81
= 33887.6 N / m 2
= 33.9 k N / m 2

Exercise: A mercury manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe. If the mercury liquid
Q is 30 cm below A in the left-hand limb and 20 cm above A in the right-hand limb, what will be the
pressure at A. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6
Solution: PA = ρ man x g x h 2 - ρ g h 1
= 13.6 x 9.81 x 0.5 – 1 x 9.81 x 0.3
∴PA = 63.8 k N / m 2

Hydraulic press

P (force) = Piston
A =area of small piston
A = area of large piston
W = load in the large piston
∴p 1 = P
A

P2 = W
A
Exercise: What force will be applied at piston A to lift the load of 500 N as shown in the arrangement
below:

Pressure diagram
The resultant force and centre of pressure can be found graphically for walls of structure and other
surfaces of constant vertical height for which it is convenient to calculate the horizontal force exerted per
unit width. Let us take the figure below as examples

In the above figure, ABC is the pressure diagram for the vertical wall of the tank containing a liquid. The
pressure is plotted horizontally against depth vertically. At the free surface A, which is exposed to the
atmosphere, the gauge pressure is zero. At depth y, P = ρ g y. The relationship between P and y is linear
and can be represented by the triangle ABC. The area of the triangle will be the product of depth (in
metres) and pressure, this will represent, to scale, the resultant force R on unit width of the immersed
surface perpendicular to the plane of the diagram. Therefore, area of pressure diagram will be:
½xABxBC.This can also be written as: ½ x H x ρ x g x H. Finally, this resultant force can be simplified
to: ρ x g x H2 /2 for unit width. The resultant force R will act through the centroid P of the pressure
diagram which is at a depth of ⅔ H from A.
Buoyancy of floating bodies
According to Archimedes principles, the upthrust or buoyancy force of an immersed body is equal to the
weight of fluid which it displaces. A submerged body will rise to the surface provided that the weight of
the body is less than the weight of the displaced liquid. The centre of gravity of the displaced liquid is
known as the centre of buoyancy and a submerged body orientates itself so that its centre of gravity is
located vertically above it centre of buoyancy. If the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy coincides,
the body will remain in any position and is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

Equilibrium of floating bodies

When a body floats in vertical equilibrium in a liquid, the forces present are the upthrust R acting through
the centre of buoyancy B and the weight of the body W = m g acting through its centre of gravity as
shown below:

For equilibrium, R and W must be equal and act in the same straight line. Now, R will be equal to the
weight of fluid displaced ρ g V, where V is the volume of fluid displaced, therefore: V = m g / ρ g = m/g.
The equilibrium of a body may be stable, unstable or neutral, depending upon whether, when given a
small displacement, it tends to return to the equilibrium position, move further from it or remain in the
displaced position. For a floating body, such as a ship, stability is of major importance.

Fluid in motion
When a liquid flow through a pipeline, it is subjected to resistance caused by friction and viscosity. If the
average velocity of a fluid flowing in a pipeline is low, then the fluid flows in parallel lines along the
sides of the pipeline. In such a case, the flow is said to be laminar. However, if the average velocity is
increased beyond a critical value, the fluid particles move in a disorderly manner. In such a case the fluid
is said to be turbulent.

Uniform and Steady flow

Conditions in a body of fluid can vary from point to point and, at any given point can vary from one
moment of time to the next. Therefore, there are four possible types of flow as follows:

Steady uniform flow: In this case the conditions did not change with the position or time. The velocity
and cross-sectional area of the stream of fluid are the same at each cross-section. An example is the flow
of a liquid through a pipe of uniform bore running completely full at constant velocity.
Steady non-uniform flow: Conditions change from point to point but not with time. The velocity and
cross-sectional area of the stream may vary from cross-section to cross-section, but for each cross-section,
they will not vary with time. An example is flow of liquid at a constant rate through a tapering pipe
running completely full.

Unsteady uniform flow: At a given instant of time the velocity at every point is the same, but this
velocity will change with time. An example is accelerating flow of liquid through a pipe of uniform bore
running full, such as would occur when a pump is started up.

Unsteady non-uniform flow: The cross-sectional area and velocity vary from point to point and also
change with time. For example, a wave traveling along a channel.

Rate of flow
When a liquid flow through the pipeline, the volume of liquid passing any given cross-section of the
pipeline in unit time is referred to as the rate of flow or discharge, Q.

If the cross-sectional area of the pipeline is A, and the fluid flows with a uniform velocity V, then the
discharge is given by: Q = A x V in m 3 /sec.

Continuity equation

Consider the above illustrations indicating flow of water in a given pipe. Let us suppose that the end
sectional areas are δA1 and δA2 , and the corresponding velocities, assumed uniform, are V1 and V2 . It is
evident that the elemental discharge δQ is given by:
δQ = V1 δA1 = V2 δA2 . Therefore, to get the exact discharge we have:
Q = V 1 A1 = V 2 A2
The continuity equation can also be applied to determine the relation between the flows into and out of a
junction for steady condition similar to the one shown below:

Total inflow to junction = Total outflow from junction

Q1 = Q2 + Q 3
A1 x V1 = A 2 V2 + A 3 x V 3

Calculation on rate of flow

Exercise: Water flows from a pipe of diameter 15 mm at a velocity of 0.6 m/ sec. calculate the discharge
Solution: Q = V x A
0.6 x π x (0.015)2
4
∴Q = 1.06 x10-4 m3 / sec.

Exercise: Oil which has a density of 800 kg / m 3 is flowing through a pipeline at a rate of 0.002 m3 / sec.
The pipeline is 50 mm diameter. Calculate the velocity of flow.
Solution: Q = A x V
∴V = Q = 0.002 x 4
A π (0.05)2
= 1.02 m / sec

Exercise: A fluid is flowing through a converging pipe with a diameter of 0.5 m at entry point and 0.14 m
diameter at the outlet. The rate of flow is found to be 0.6 m 3 / sec. Calculate the velocity at the entry and
outlet.
Solution: Q = A1 V1 and V1 = Q = 0.6 x 4
A1 π (0.5)2
Also, from continuity equation we have Q = A 2 V2
∴V2 = Q = 0.6 x 4
A2 π (0.14)2
Exercise: Water is flowing through a pipeline which contract from 500 mm diameter at position A to 350
mm diameter at position B and then it divides. One of the branches at position C has a diameter of 100
mm while the one at d has 200 mm as its diameter. The velocity at A is 1.5 m/ sec while velocity at d is
3.5 m /sec. Calculate the discharge at C and D and velocities at B and C.
Solution: QA = QC + QD
Area at A = π dA2 = π (0.500)2 = 0.196 m 2
4 4
Area at B = π (0.35)2 = 0.096 m2
4
Area at C = π (0.1)2 = 0.0078 m 2
4
Area at D = π (0.2)2 = 0.031 m2
4
QD = A VD = 0.031 x 3.5 = 0.109 m 3 / sec
QA = AA VA = 0.196 x 1.5 = 0.294 m 3 / sec
From continuity equation Q = A A VA = AD VD

∴VB = AA x VA = 0.294 = 3.06 m /sec

AB 0.096

Since QA = QC + QD , then
QA = AC VC + Q D
= 0.294 = 0.0078 x V C + 0.109
∴VC = 0.294 – 0.109 = 23.72 m /sec
0.0078
And QC = AC VC = 0.0078 x 23.72 = 0.185 m 3 / sec

Flow measuring equipment

1. Air is discharged from an outlet at a velocity of 3 m /sec. Calculate the diameter of the outlet if the
discharge is 5.9397 x 10-3 m3 / sec.
Solution: Q = A x V and A = Q = 5.9397 x 10-3
V 3
∴A = 1.9799 x 10-3 m2
But A = π d 2 = 1.9799 x 10-3
4
d 2 = 4 x 1.9799 x 10 -3
π x 103
2
d = 2.5208
10 3
d = √(25.208-4 ) = 50.2 mm

2. Cooling water from a power station is discharged through a pipe. At position 1 the speed of flow is 6
m /sec, and at position 2 the speed is 4 m /sec. The diameter of the pipe at position 2 is 2 m.
Calculate:
a) the rate of flow at position 2
b) the diameter of the pipe at position 1
Solution: Q = A2 x V2
= π d 2 2 x V2
4
= 3.14 x 2 2
4
∴Q = 12.6 m3 / sec
b) From continuity equation
A1 x V1 = A 2 V2
π d 1 2 x V1 = π d 2 2 x V2
4 4
d 1 2 V1 = d 2 2 V2
∴ d 1 2 = d 2 2 x V2
V1
= 2 2 x 4 = √2.68
6
∴d 1 = 1.63 m

Bernoulli’s equation
It states that: H = Z + P + V2
ρg 2g
where: z = potential energy per unit weight

P = pressure energy
Ρg

V2 = kinematics energy per unit weight

2g

Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of each particle of a body of fluid within a particular
system is the same provided that no energy enters or leaves the system at any point. This principle of
conservation of energy can be used to solve problems involving fluid flow.

Consider the above tank of water in which water is flowing through an orifice in the side of the tank with
a velocity V1, under a static head ‘h’. Bernoulli’s theorem can be applied to points A, B and C as follows:

ZA + PA+ VA2 = ZB + PB + VB2 = ZC + PC

ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg

Exercise: In a horizontal pipeline, there is a liquid that is flowing and the pipe involved, gradually
converges from a diameter of 200 mm at position A to 150 mm at position B. If the velocity at A is
2m/sec and the pressure head is 15 m. Calculate the velocity and pressure head at B. Take g = 10 and Z as
the datum.
Solution: From continuity equation, the discharge at A, Q A is the equal to discharge at B, Q B. i.e.

QA = QB
AA VA = A B VB
AA = 3.14 (0.2)2 /4 = 0.0314 m 2
AB = 3.14 (0.15)2 /4 = 0.018 m 2
To get VB = 0.0314 x 2/ 0.018 = 3.55 m / sec
ZA + PA + VA 2 = ZA + PB + V B2
ρg 2g ρg 2g

0 + 15 + 2 2 = ZB + PB + (3.55)2
2 x10 ρg 2 x 10

15 + 0.2 = PB + 0.63
ρg

PB = 15 +0.2 – 0.63 = 14.6 m

ρg

Pilot tube

The pilot tube is used to measure the velocity of a stream and it consists of a simple L-shaped tube facing
into the on-coming flow. In its elementary form, it consists of a tube with unsealed ends. One limb is
inserted in the area of flow while the other is vertical and open to the atmosphere. From the above figure,
if the velocity of the stream at A is ‘u’, a particle moving from A to the mouth of the tube B will be
brought to rest, so that ‘u 0’ at B is zero. Bernoulli’s equation can be applied here.