NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMSHEDPUR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

Experiment No. 2

BERNOULLI’S EXPERIMENT
Aim: To verify experimentally, the Bernoulli’s theorem.

Introduction &Theory: Bernoulli’s equation is an energy equation and is based on

theLaw of conservation of energy. This equation states that at two sections of a flow
field the total energy remains the same provided that there is no loss or gain of energy
between the two sections. This equation is valid only for steady (flow parameters at any
given section do not change with respect of time), irrotational flow of an
incompressible, non-viscous fluid. Mathematically, the Bernoulli’s equation is
expressed as:

p/w+𝑉2/2𝑔+Z=Constant ……(1)

where, p/w = Pressure Head

𝑉2 / 2𝑔 = Velocity Head
Z= Datum Head

Experimental Set-Up:The set-up manly consists of a horizontal transparent converging

diverging conduit, inlet water tank, piezometer tubes, valves at the inlet and outlet, and
water supply pipeline.

Piezometer tubes are fitted to the converging – diverging conduit. Vertically, at

regular intervals. These tubes are used to measure the pressure head (p/w) at different
cross–sections of the conduit.

The conduit is connected to an inlet water tank, which is cylindrical in shape near, its
bottom. A piezometer tube is also fixed to tank for recording the water level in it. The
tank may be providedwith an over flow system to maintain constant head in the tank.

Procedure:

1. Note the distance of each piezometer tube from the left-hand end of the conduit.
2. Open the supply value and adjust the flow in the conduit so that the water level in
the tankremains at a constant level(i.e. the flow becomes steady).
3. Measure the height of water level (above an arbitrarily selected suitable
horizontalplane) in different piezometer tubes. This is equal to (p/w + z) for the
 respective piezometer positions.
4. Measure the rate of discharge by collecting the water for a known period of the time
(say 20 seconds) in a measuring tank/container/bucket.
5. Repeat steps (2) to (4) for different rate of flow.

Observation:

Length of converging portion = Length of diverging portion =

Distance between piezometer tubes = Area at inlet =

Area at outlet = Area at the throat =

Run No. 1

Volume of water collected (cm3) =

Time Period (s) =
Rate of flow, Q (cm3/s) =
Piezometer Distance of Area of cross Velocity of (p/w+z) 𝑉2/ 2𝑔 p/w +𝑉2/2𝑔+z (cm)
Tube no. piezometer from section of flow V =Q/A (cm) (cm)
inlet section conduit, A (cm/s)
(cm) (cm2)
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11

Calclations:

1. Find the conduit cross-sectional area at different piezometer position

Knowing theinlet, throat and outlet cross-sections of the conduit
𝖶𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
2.Q = 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑇i𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟i𝑜𝑑

Velocity head = 𝑉2 / 2𝑔

Determine the velocity head using the above relations.

Results: Show that p/w + 𝑉2 / 2𝑔+z = Constant by plotting head Vs distance curves.
Precaution:

• Apparatus should be in levelled condition.

• Reading must be taken in steady or neut by steady conditions and it should be noted that
water level in the inlet supply tank should reach the overflow condition.
• There should not be any air bubble in the piezometer and in the perspex duct

• By closing the regulating valve, open the control valve slightly such that the water level in
the inlet supply tank reaches the overflow conditions. At this stage check that pressure head
in each piezometer tube is equal. If not adjust the piezometers to bring it equal.

Comments:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMSHEDPUR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY
Experiment No- 06

Aim:
To study the boundary layer and velocity profile .

Apparatus Required:
Wind tunnel, pitot static tube, inclined u- tube manometer

Theory:
Because of viscous characteristics of a fluid flowing past a body, the fluid has a tendency to
adhere to the body. As a result, ‘no slip’ condition prevails and the fluid at the boundary has
the same velocity as that of the boundary. If the boundary is at rest, the fluid at the boundary
has zero velocity and away from the boundary, the velocity increases. Thus, there is a thin layer
in the vicinity of the boundary within which the velocity has been affected because of the
boundary and viscous effects. This layer has been termed as the boundary layer.
Consider a fluid flow past a flat plate which is placed parallel to the flow as shown in
figure…
At the leading edge, x = 0, of the plate, the thickness of the boundary layer zone is zero.
Thickness of this zone increases with increase in x. In the initial portion of the flat plate (i.e.
small values of x) the flow within the boundary layer is laminar (i.e. the fluid moves in parallel
layers) and, accordingly, the boundary layer is termed as the laminar boundary layer. After
some distance downstream of the leading edge the flow within the boundary layer is however,
turbulent (i.e. the fluid does not move in parallel layers but moves in a way that the fluid
particles have transverse motion as well) and accordingly, the boundary layer is called the
turbulent boundary layer. In the turbulent boundary layer zone there still exists a very thin layer
near the boundary in which the flow is laminar. This thin layer is called laminar sub layer. In
between the laminar boundary layer zone and turbulent boundary layer zone there exists a
transition zone. Velocity distribution in the laminar boundary layer zone follows parabolic
variation while the turbulent boundary layer zone the velocity variation is logarithmic in nature.

The extend of the viscous effects near a boundary is measured in terms of boundary
layer thickness. Two commonly used thicknesses are the nominal thickness and the
displacement thickness of the boundary layer. The nominal thickness of a boundary layer,  is
defined as that value of y (as in figure…) at which the velocity of flow is 99% of the free
stream velocity. In other words, at y = , u = 0.99 Uo. Here, u represents velocity of flow at a
distance y from the boundary and U0 is the free stream velocity.

Procedure:
1. Place the flat plate at the test section of the wind tunnel.
2. On the blower and let the Pitot tube touch the bottom of the flat plate.
3. Note down the manometer readings h1 and h2.
4. Raise the Pitot tube by 2 mm and repeat step 3.
5. Repeat step 4 till the centre of the tunnel is reached or when no change in manometer
readings is observed for five different successive positions of Pitot tube.
6. Repeat step 3 and 4 at different position (along the flow) in test section.
Observations:

S.no ∆h (Deflection in Velocity of air Horizontal Frequency (Hz)

manometer)= (h1-h2) at……cm of pitot distance from test
tube. section
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations:
The pressure and velocity heads are related by the following expression for the inclined manometer
∆P V2air
⎯⎯ = ⎯⎯⎯
wair 2g
= hair x Sin 
= hwater x Sin  x water/ air

Vair =  2g x hair x sin 

V =  2g x hwater x sin  x water/ air

Where

P = differential pressure (difference of between total wind induced

pressure and static reference pressure).

hair = air head in U-tube manometer

hwater= difference of water head in U-tube manometer

 = inclination of manometer 15 degree.

air = 0.001208 gm/cm3

water = 1.000 gm/cm3

vair = velocity of air

Results:
Precautions:
Comments:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMSHEDPUR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

EXPERMENT NO-05

DISCHARGE OVER NOTCHES

OBJECTIVE: To study the discharge over different types of notches.

AIM: To determine the co-efficient of discharge through different type of notches.

1. Rectangular Notch
2. V Notch-60
INTRODUCTION:

A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of a liquid through a small channel or a tank. It
may be defined as an opening in the side of tank or a small channel in such a way that the liquid
surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening. The sheet of water flowing
through the notch is called Nappe or Vein. The bottom edge of a notch over which the water
flows, is known as the sill or crest.

THEORY:

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE:

The ratio of actual discharge over a notch to the theoretical discharge is known as coefficient of
discharge, Mathematically, Co-efficient of discharge:

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
Cd= 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆

DISCHARGE OVER A RECTANGULAR NOTCH

𝟑
𝟐
Q= 𝟑Cd L √𝟐𝒈 𝑯𝟐
DISCHARGE OVER TRIANGULAR NOTCH

𝟓
𝟖 𝜽
Q= 𝟏𝟓Cd tan𝟐 √𝟐𝒈 𝑯𝟐

DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus is designed and fabricated to demonstrate the notch experiments and to find the
co-efficient of discharge. A set of three knife edged notch plates made up of Brass sheet is
provided. One of them is rectangular other is "V" notch having included angles 60 and third is
"V" notch having included angles 45". Depth of each notch is 105 mm. The notches are
interchangeable. A pointer is provided to measure the height of water level over the crest of the
notch. It gives the reading directly in 1/10th of mm.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Power supply: Single Phase, 220 Volts, 50 Hz. 5 Amp

Water Supply
Drain
Space required: 1.6m x 0.6m
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Starting Procedure:
1. Clean the apparatus and make all the tanks free from dust.
2. Close the drain valves provided.
3. Close Flow Control Valve given in water line.
4. Open By-Pass Valve.
5. Fix desired Nosch on the flow channel.
6. Fill Sump tank 3/4 with Clear Water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
7. Ensure that all On/Off Switches given on the Panel are at OFF position.
8. Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).
9. Switch on the Pump.
10. Regulate Flow of water through channel with the help of given Flow Control Valve.
11. Record the height of water level in the channel with the help of pointer Gauge
12. Measure Flow Rate using Measuring Tank and Stop Watch
CLOSING PROCEDURE:
1. When experiment is over, Switch off Pump
2. Switch off Power Supply to Panel
3. Drain water from all three tanks with the help of given drain valves.
SPECIFICATION:

Channel Test Section : Size 600 x 250 x 180 mm

Notches: Material S.S (2 Nos.)
1. Rectangular Notch
2. 60° V Notch
Hook/Pointer Gauge: with vernier scale
water circulation: FHP Pumps
Flow Measurement: Using Measuring Tank with piezometer, capacity 40 Ltrs.
Sump Tank: Capacity 60 Ltrs
Stop Watch : Electrinic
Control Panel Comprises of : Standard make On/Off Switch, Mains Indicator, etc.
The whole set-up is well designed and arranged in a good quality painted structure.
FORMULAE:

𝑨∗𝑹
Actual discharge ,Q = 𝒕∗𝟏𝟎𝟎

Discharge over Triangular Notch, Q

 𝟓
𝟖 𝜽
Q= 𝟏𝟓Cd tan𝟐 √𝟐𝒈 𝑯𝟐
𝟏𝟓∗𝑸
Cd = 𝟓
𝜽
𝟖∗𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝟐𝒈 𝑯𝟐
𝟐

Discharge over Rectangular Notch, Q

𝟑
𝟐
Q= 𝟑Cd L √𝟐𝒈 𝑯𝟐
𝟑∗𝑸
Cd = 𝟑
𝟐 𝐋 √𝟐𝒈 𝑯𝟐

NOMENCLATURE:
Q= actual discharge in m3/s
A= area of measuring tank, m2
𝜽 = angle of V-notch
L =width of the rectangular notch in meter
H= water head over crest in meter
R= Rise of water level in measuring tank, m
t =Time for R
Cd= Co-efficient of discharge for rectangular notch and triangular notch.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO Water head over crest H, Rise of water level in measuring Tme for R,t(sec)
(mm)= h2-h1 tank R(cm)= R2-R1
1
2
3

CALCULATION TABLE:

S.No Water head over crest Volume ,V Q(m3/s) Cd

H, (mm)
1
2
3
RESULTS:
PRECAUTIONS :
1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all the on/off switches given on
the Panel are at off position,
2. Never run the Pump at low Voltage is less than 180 Volts.
3. Never fully close the Delivery and By-pass line valves simultaneously.
4. Always keep apparatus free from dust.
5. Frequently Grease/Oil the rotating parts, once in three months.
6. Always use clean water
7. If apparatus will not be in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely
and fill pump with cutting oil.
TROUBLESHOOTINGS:
1. If pump gets jam, open the back cover of pump and rotate the shaft manually.
2. If pump gets heat up, switch off the main power for 15 minutes and avoid closing the flow
control valve and by pass valve simultaneously.

COMMENTS:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMSHEDPUR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT N0- 04

LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION IN PIPE LINES

OBJECTIVE: To study the losses due to friction in pipes

AIM: To determine the friction factor for Darcy Weisbach equation

INTRODUCTION:

When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to which some
of the energy of fluid is lost. This loss of energy in the pipelines comes under major energy
losses and minor energy losses in long pipelines the friction losses are much larger than the
minor losses and hence, the latter are often neglected. The losses due to friction in the pipelines
are known as major energy losses. The friction in the pipeline is due to a viscous drag between
the stream bends of fluid. The stream bands of adjacent to the solid surface are always at rest
relative to the wetted surface. The viscous drag is due to the molecular attractions between the
molecules of the fluid.

THEORY:

It is found that the total friction resistance to fluid flow depends on the following:

a. The area of the wetted surface

b. The density of the fluid

c. The surface roughness

d. It is independent of the fluid pressure

e. It increase with the square of the velocity

The loss of head in pipe due to friction is calculated from Darcy-Weisbach equation
which has been given by , h f = 4fLV2 / 2gD

F=4f
F= Darcy friction factor (or)Friction factor;
f= fanning friction factor (or) co-efficient of Friction factor
where,
h f = loss of head due to friction:
f = co-efficient of Friction factor
L= distance between pressure point
V= mean velocity of fluid
d = dameter of pipe
g =Acceleration due to gravity

DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus consist of sump tank with centrifugal pump. A pipe with diameter above 2 mm in
which an inlet connection is provided with control valve to regulate the flow. Near the
downstream end of the pipe. Pressure tapings are taken at suitable distance apart between which
a manometer is provided to study the pressure loss due to the friction. Discharge is measured
with the help of measuring tank and stopwatch

UTILITES REQUIRED:

1. Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC 50 Hz. 5-15 Amp combined socket with
earth connection. Earth voltage should be less than 5 volts
2. Floor Drain Required
3. Water Supply: Initial Fill
4. Floor area 1.5m X0.75m

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

STARTING PROCEDURE:

. Close all the valves provided V1 to V5.

a. Fill sump tank ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
b. Open by-pass valve V3.
c. Ensure that On/ off switch given on the panel is at OFF position .
d. Switch on the main power supply
e. Switch on the Pump
 f. Operate the Flow Control Valve V1, for ½” pipe and by pass valve V3 to regulate the flow
of water in the desired Test Section.
g. Connect the pressure taps of related test section to manometer .
h. Open Valve V5 provided on the Manometer, slowly to release the air in manometer.
i. When there is no air in the manometer, close air release valve V5 .
j. Record the manometer reading, in case of pressure above scale in any tube apply air
pressure by hand pump to get readable reading
k. Measure the flow of water, discharged through desired test section, using stop watch and
measuring tank.
l. Measure the difference in the height of measuring tank
m. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates of water by operating control valve V1 and
by-pass valve V5 .

CLOSING PROCEDURE:

a. When experiment is over Switch off pump

b. Switch OFF power supply to the panel
c. Drain the tanks with the help of given drain valves V4 & V5
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Test pipe = 1/2”

S.No h1 (cm) h2(cm) R1(cm) R2(cm) t(s)
1
2
3
.

CALCULATIONS:

𝐑𝟐−𝐑𝟏
R= (m)
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑨𝒙𝑹
Q= (m3/s)
𝒕

𝝅
A = 𝟒 d 2 (m2)

V= Q/A (m/s)

𝒉𝟏−𝒉𝟐
hf = (m)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
f exp= (𝟐 𝒉𝒇 𝒈 𝒅)/𝟒𝑳𝑽𝟐

𝝆𝑽𝒅
Re= 𝝁

𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟗𝟏
f th = 𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟐𝟓

CALCULATION TABLE

S.NO R(m) hf (m) fth Re f exp

1
2
3

Acceleration due to gravity g=9.81 m/s2

Area of measuring tank A= 0.076 m²
Inside Diameter of Pipe For pipe ½” = 0.016 m
Distance between pressure tapings L For pipe ½” = 1m

RESULTS

NOMENCLATURE

Nomenclature Column Heading Units

A Area of measuring tank Cross-section area m2

of pipe

a Cross- section area of pipe m2

d inside Diameter of Pipe m

f Friction factor ..

g Acceleration due to gravity m/s2

h1, h2 Manometric reading at both points cm

hf Head losses m of water

L Distance between pressure tapings m

Q Discharge m3/s
 R Rise of water level in measuring tank m

R1 Final level of water in measuring tank cm

R2 initial level of water in measuring tank cm

t Time taken for R s

V velocity of fluid m/s

PRECAUTION & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS.

• Never run the apparatus it power supply is less than 200 Volts and above 230 Volts.
• Never fully close the delivery valve V. & V, and by-pass valve V, at a time.
• To prevent clogging of moving parts, run pump at least once in fortnight.
• Always use clean water.
• Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
• If apparatus is not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely.

TROUBLESHOOTING.

• If pump gets jammed, open the back cover of pump and rotate the shaft manually.
• If pump gets heated up, switch off the main power for minutes and avoid closing the flow
control valve V1 & V2 and by pass valve V 3 at a time during operation.

COMMENTS.
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMSHEDPUR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
METACENTRIC HEIGHT
AIM: To determine experimentally the metacentric height of a ship model.

INTRODUCTION & THEORY: If an object is submersed, partially or fully, in a fluid,

the forces acting on the object are.

(i) The weight of the object, acting vertically downwards through the centre of gravity
(C) of the object. This is denoted by Ws in Fig. 1(a).
(ii) The force of buoyancy, acting vertically upwards through the centre of gravity of the
displaced fluid, called centre of Buoyancy and designated by Bo in Fig. 1(a). The
buoyant force (FB) is equal to the weight of the displayed fluid. For the object to be in
equilibrium on the liquid surface the two forces Ws and FB must be equal opposite
and co-linear. On rotating the body as shown in Fig. 1(b), through an angle ϴ, the
centre of gravity (C) of the body is usually unchanged and remains in its position in
the section. But, the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid (Bo) will generally change
its position. Thus Ws and FB form a couple. The line of action of FB in the new
position cuts the axis of the object at M, which is called the metacentre and the
distance CM is called the metacentric height.The metacentric height is a mesure of
the static stability of the floating bodies. Obviously, for the couple to be arestoring
(righting) couple (which will restore the body in upright position) M must lie above
C. In a ship design, it is important that this satisfied for all angle of heal which may be
encountered. Referring Fig. 1 and 2, when the ship model has been tilted through an
angle ϴ by displacing the moveable weight equal to WM with respect to centre of the
cross bar, the centre of buoyancy shifts. The metacentric height CM can be obtained
by equating righting couple and the applied couple.
Thus,

Restoring Couple = Applied Couple.

(Ws +WM). CM sinϴ = WM .X cosϴ

Where, Ws = Weight of the ship model.

WM =Weight of moveable mass.
ϴ = Angle of tilt = Heal angle.
X = Distance of the moveable mass from the centre of the cross bar.
 Metacentric height, CM = (WM .X) /(Ws +WM). tanϴ

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP: The experimental set-up essentially consists of a small water

tank and a model of a ship.

The ship model is made to float in a small metallic tank filled with water.

The ship model mainly consists of a crossbar, a movable mass, removable steel weights, a
pointer and a graduated arc. A known weight is suspended on the crossbar in order to tilt the
ship model by an angle ϴ. The pointer and graduated arc are suitably fixed at the centre
of the crossbar itself to record the angle of tilt ϴ of the model. Removable steel weights are
placed in the ship model to change the weight of the model as and when required.

Fig.1: An object in a fluid.

Fig.2: Experimental set-up for a ship model.

WEIGHT OF SHIP MODEL:

Weight of a floating ship model (Ws) can be found by the help of ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE.

Area of Tank, A(cm2 ) = 50 x50

Rise of water level in piezometer tubes, H(cm)

H(cm) = (Final level in piezometer tubes after putting the ship model in tank) – (Initial level in
piezometer tubes without ship model in tank).

H(cm) = h2- h1

Density of water “ρ” = 1 gm/ cm3 = 1000 kg/m3

So, Ws = A x H x ρ (gm)

To increase the accuracy in reading the value of ϴ, the radius of the graduated arc may be
kept half the length of the pointer. Thus the reading on the arc is twice the angle of tilt, ϴ.

PROCEDURE:

1. Note down the ratio of the graduated arc to the length of the pointer (n).
2. Weight the ship model to know Ws.
3. Float the ship model in the tank filled with water and displace the movable mass so asto
tilt the model through a small angle.
4. Note the distance, X of the movable mass from the centre of crossbar.
5. Record the angle ϴ on the graduated arc.
6. Repeat the steps 3 to 5 for different positions of movable mass.
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 for different weights of the ship model (weight Ws of the shipmodel
is varied by removing the steel weights).
OBSERVATIONS:

Ratio of radius of the graduated arc to the length of the pointer = n = 1.

Weight of the movable mass, Wm (gm) =

Sl. No. Ws Wm (gm) (Ws+ Wm) X (cm) ϴ (Deg) ϴ = nϴ tanϴ Metacentric

(gm) (Deg) height (cm)
(gm)

01
02
03
04
05
.
.
.
n

CALCULATIONS:
RESULTS:

Find the average metacentric height, CM = (CM1+ CM2 + CM3+…….. CMn ) / n

PRECAUTIONS:

• Apparatus should be in levelled condition.

• Reading must be taken at steady condition of water.
• Unbalanced mass should be measured by taking care that water disturbance should be minimum.
• Reading of tilt is to be taken when the pendulum becomes steady and does not fluctuate.

COMMENTS:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMSHEDPUR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

Experiment No. 3

REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT
AIM: To study the flow parameters (Laminar and Turbulent) for flow through a pipeline.

Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912), a British Engineer, demonstrated most effectively the

characteristics of laminar and turbulent flow during his classic experiments at Manchester
University. He showed that, under suitable conditions, the two types of flow could be made to
occur in the one pipe.
APPARATUS REQURIED: Measuring flask, stopwatch, dye (potassium permanganate)

THEORY:

The apparatus is extremely simple and consisted essentially of a glass tube through
which water could be made to flow at varying velocities. Provision was made for the
insertion of a thin jet of axiline dye into the steam of water at the upstream end.

Commencing with a very low water velocity, it is found that the dye remains straight
in the form of a thin slender thread extending the whole length of the tube as in Fig. 1. This
indicates that the particles of liquid are moving in straight parallel paths and that the flow is
therefore laminar.

The velocity of water is then gradually increases and at a certain point the thread
breaks up, as in Fig. 1, and the diffused dye intermingle with the water in the tube. The flow
has evidently passed into the turbulent state and is found to remain in this condition for all
higher velocities. By using varying size of tube and differing temperatures of water it can be
shown that the critical velocity at which the change takes place depended on both these
factors. It can be concluded that there are an upper and lower critical velocity-the lower one,
which is the stable, being the tube critical velocity.

REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re):

It is named after Osborne Reynolds and is always important, with or without a free
surface, and can be neglected only in flow regions away from high velocity gradients, e.g.
away from solid surfaces, jets, or wakes.

Reynolds number (Re) = ρVD/μ

Where V and D represent the characteristic velocity and length scales of the flow. It is a
primary parameter correlating the viscous behavior of all Newtonian fluids.

According to Reynolds there are only three factors which can influence the nature of
flow the viscosity (μ), the density (ρ) of the fluid, and the diameter (D) of the pipe. The
roughness may be expected to be a factor in turbulent flow but not in laminar. The any
possible way in which μ, ρ and D can be combined to yield the same dimensions as the
velocity (critical) is in the form μ/ρD.
It is found that for circular section pipes the dimensionless ratio (Re) so obtained is always
about 2000. It is therefore affirmed that if ρVD/μ is below 2000 the flow must be laminar,
where as if it is above 4000, the flow must be turbulent.

We know that owing to the region of instability which exists at the transition stage a
more precise definition would stipulate.

For laminar flow, Re is less than 2000,

For transition flow, Re lies between 2000-4000,

And for turbulent flow, Re is greater than 4000.

REGIMS OF FLOW:
Laminar flow is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid particles move along
well defined paths or stream lines and all the stream lines are parallel. Thus the particles
move in laminar or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer. This type of flow also
calls stream line flow or viscous flow.

Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a zig-zag way.
Due to the movement of fluid particles in zig-zag way, the information of eddies and vortices
takes place which are responsible for the energy loss in the flow.

For the flow through a pipe if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is
called laminar. If the Reynolds number is more than 4000, it is called turbulent flow.

If the Reynolds number lies between 2000-4000, the transition flow takes place for
laminar to turbulent.

LAWS OF RESISTANCE:

A simple axiline dye apparatus is not suitable for determining the loss of resistance.
Accordingly, the head loss is measured in different size diameter and lengths of the pipe with
varying discharges. The curve of head loss hf against mean velocity v, when plotted
logarithmically for a given pipe diameter, is found to take the form shown in fig. 3.

The lower portion of Fig. 3 is a straight line inclined at 450 (equal scales), indicating
that hf is proportional to v, which is characteristics of laminar flow. The upper portion may be
interpreted as a straight line with slope just below to, indicating the hf is very nearly
proportional to v2, which is the characteristics of turbulent flow. As will be seen later this
interpretation leads to a simple empirical curve of the form hf = cvn.

One very significant point is that, in the resistance curve, the head loss in turbulent
flow is much greater than that of laminar. This is only to be expected since eddying motion of
the water particles must result in an increased loss of energy.

The plotted points indicate certain instability in the transition region and the result of
the various tests show that the magnitude of the critical velocity varies inversely with pipe
 diameter. There is no immediately apparent explanation for this and so the next logical step
inthe analysis is an evaluation of the factors which governs critical velocity.

The flow will appear steady on the average but will reveal rapid, random fluctuations
if turbulence is present, as sketched in Fig. 2. If the flow is laminar, there may be occasional
natural disturbance which damp out quickly (Fig. 2a). If transition is occurring, there will be
sharp bursts of turbulent fluctuation (Fig. 2b) as the increasing Reynolds number causes a
breakdown or instability of laminar motion. At sufficiently large Re, the flow will fluctuate
continually (Fig. 2c) and is termed fully turbulent. The fluctuations, typically ranging from
1 to 20% of the average velocity, are not strictly periodic but are random and encompass a
continuous rage or spectrum, of frequency. In a typical wind-tunnel flow at high Re the
turbulent frequency ranges from 1 to 10000 Hz, and the wave length ranges from about 0.0
to400cm.

Fig-1: Reynolds apparatus

PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the discharge with the help of measuring flask and
stopwatch.
2. Slowly open the valve of dye to see the flow pattern. Whether
laminar, turbulent or transition.
3. Find the Reynolds number from above data.
OBSERVATION:
S.NO Volume(m3) Time(sec) Q=Vol./T(m3/s) V(m/s) (Re) =ρVD/μ Observation of the
dye(Type of flow)
1
2
3
4
5

CALCULATION:

RESULTS:

PRECAUTIONS:

COMMENTS:

Fig. 3: Variation of head loss with mean

velocity