High velocity forming of metals:-effects of high speeds on the stress strain relationship steel,

aluminum, Copper – comparison of conventional and high velocity forming methods-

deformation velocity, material behavior, stain distribution.
Stress waves and deformation in solids – types of elastic body waves- relation at free
boundaries- relative particle velocity.
Sheet metal forming: - explosive forming:-process variable, properties of explosively formed
parts, etc.
Electro hydraulic forming: - theory, process variables, etc, comparison with explosive forming.
Module 5

High velocity forming of metals

Introduction: The high speed metal forming process as one in which the speed of metal
movement is appreciably higher than normally associated with the equivalent conventional
forming process. A popular term often used to describe high speed metal ‘forming is high
energy forming’ sometimes simply high energy forming.

There are several reasons for the great amount of research and development effort which has
been given to high speed metal forming, and for its increasing importance in industrial
production. Firstly, the development of new high strength alloys, combined with the need to

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produce parts of more complicated form, has increased the problems associated with forming
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in conventional machines. Secondly, many manufacturers would prefer to form parts rather

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than use the often wasteful cutting methods, but the high capital cost of conventional forming
machines and tooling has precluded their use for all but high volume mass production.

If we take the case of deep drawing, the punch goes into the die, and in between there is the
sheet metal, which we want to deform. Here, the process is not sudden and it is not same as
impact loading.If we give impact loading, then there are chances that the sheet metal may
fail, cracks may appear, same micro cracks may appear, and may lead to a catastrophic
failure. But in the case of high energy rate forming processes, a very high energy is applied
for a very brief interval of time, in order to plastic deform the sheet meal to give it the desired
shape.

Another important aspect of these processes is that it is possible to form large parts out of
most metals including those which are otherwise difficult to form. There are many metals
with this tendency, which deform under high load exerted for a very brief interval of time.
For those metals also these types of processes can be used. Another advantage of high energy
rate forming process is that there is less difficulty related to spring back. In conventional
sheet metal forming processes, there will be a problem that is called spring back which is not
observed in HVF.

The forming processes are affected by the rates of strain used.

Effects of strain rates during forming:
1. The flow stress increases with strain rates
2. The temperature of work is increases due to adiabatic heating.

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3. Improved lubrication if lubricating film is maintained.
4. Many difficult to form materials like Titanium and Tungsten alloys, can be deformed
under high strain rates.
Principle / important features of HERF/ HVF processes:
• The energy of deformation is delivered at a much higher rate than in conventional practice.
• Larger energy is applied for a very short interval of time.
• High particle velocities are produced in contrast with conventional forming process.
• The velocity of deformation is also very large and hence these are also called High Velocity
Forming (HVF) processes.
• Many metals tend to deform more readily under extra fast application of force.
• Large parts can be easily formed by this technique.
• For many metals, the elongation to fracture increases with strain rate beyond the usual metal
working range, until a critical strain rate is achieved, where the ductility drops sharply.
• The strain rate dependence of strength increases with increasing temperature.
• The yield stress and flow stress at lower plastic strains are more dependent on strain rate
than the tensile strength.
• High rates of strain cause the yield point to appear in tests on low carbon steel that do not
show a yield point under ordinary rates of strain.

Advantages of HERF/HVF Processes

i) Production rates are higher, as parts are made at a rapid rate.
ii) Die costs are relatively lower.
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iii) Tolerances can be easily maintained.

metals.
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iv) Versatility of the process – it is possible to form most metals including difficult to form
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v) No or minimum spring back effect on the material after the process.
vi) Production cost is low as power hammer (or press) is eliminated in the process. Hence it
is economically justifiable.
vii) Complex shapes / profiles can be made much easily, as compared to conventional
forming.
viii) The required final shape/ dimensions are obtained in one stroke (or step), thus
eliminating intermediate forming steps and pre forming dies.
ix) Suitable for a range of production volume such as small numbers, batches or mass
production.
Limitations:
i) Highly skilled personnel are required from design to execution.
ii) Transient stresses of high magnitude are applied on the work.
iii) Not suitable to highly brittle materials
iv) Source of energy (chemical explosive or electrical) must be handled carefully.
v) Governmental regulations/ procedures / safety norms must be followed.
vi) Dies need to be much bigger to withstand high energy rates and shocks and to prevent
cracking.
vii) Controlling the application of energy is critical as it may crack the die or work.
viii) It is very essential to know the behavior or established performance of the work metal
initially.

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Applications:
i) In ship building – to form large plates / parts (up to 25 mm thick).
ii) Bending thick tubes/ pipes (up to 25 mm thick).
iii) Crimping of metal strips.
iv) Radar dishes
v) Elliptical domes used in space applications.
vi) Cladding of two large plates of dissimilar metals.

Effects of High speeds on Metal Deformation

The effects of high speed on metal deformation have been investigated from two main point
of view. One is the effect on strength of material, and in particular the effect of stain-rate on
the stress-strain curve. The second is the phenomenon of the propagation of stress waves in
the deformation material.

Effect of High speed on stress – train relationship: This is an important factor which plays
a crucial role during high velocity forming processes. Both yield strength and resistance to
deformation increase with strain rate. General level of the sress-starin curve, at ambient
temperature is higher when the load is applied rapidly than when it is applied slowly. As a
result of rapid loading, the yield stress of several types of mild steel gets increased. When
strain rate is increased beyond the usual metal working range, the elongation of fracture
increases, for many metals. Once a critical strain rate is achieved, the ductility drops sharply.

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Also it was observed that the strain rate dependence of strength increases with increasing
temperature.

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The above figure shows the stress stain curves for mild steel at lower and higher rate
of strain. As the strain rate is increased, yield stress increased considerably, but
yielding started at relatively lower value of % strain.

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The behavior of copper is presented in above figure, where also similar trend is observed. But
the increase in yield stress is marginal, whereas the yielding started only at considerably
higher values of % strain.
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In case of aluminum, a similar set of stress strain curves are shown in above figure. Here
there is a consideration increase in yield stress as the strain sate is increased. An increase in
yield stress means increased yield strength and higher resistance to deformation at higher
rates of strain observed with high velocity of loading. But this increase is marginal
corresponding to very high values of strain rates, in most of the materials. Once a critical
stain rate is achieved, the ductility drops sharply.

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Effect of Deformation Velocity

In high velocity forming processes, the velocity of deformation is much higher than the same
in conventional forming processes.

Higher deformation velocities develop stress waves which moves at high velocity with in the
material. The velocity of stress wave is often closer to velocity of sound. Moving dislocations
during plastic deformation experience a damping force. The force is proportional to the
dislocation velocity, except at velocities closer to the transverse sound velocity.

Effect of Strain Rate

The Strain tare for any particular metal forming process is directly related to the speed at
which deformation is occurring. A great rate of deformation of the work piece will mean a
higher strain rate. The specific process and the physical action of the equipment being used
have a lot to do with strain rate. Strain rate will affect the amount of flow stress. The effect of
stain rate on flow stress is dependent upon the metal and temperature at which the metal is
formed.

At high plastic strain rates, dislocations may be required to move so quickly that dislocation
damping forces determine the flow stress. If only a small fraction of the dislocations during
plastic straining is mobile, the critical strain rate is reduced by an amount equal to his friction.

Material Behavior
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The microstructural changes introduced by HERF have much influence on terminal

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properties and thermal response as in the case of conventional metal forming processes. The
terminal strength of FCC metals are higher after dynamic loading (HERF) than static loading
(conventional).But a reverse trend was observed in BCC and HCP metals. Other than this
there is no significant changes in material behavior after HERF, when compared with
conventional metal forming processes.

Effect of Strain Distribution

It has been establish that increasing the speed of deformation during plastic forming improve
formability and uniformity of stain distribution and reduces the cost of cooling. In
conventional forming processes, friction b/w die and work material causes the strain
distribution in the material to be non-uniform. In HVF, the contact and hence friction with a
die is not existing. The absence of frictional force lead to more uniform strain distribution on
the work material.

This results in producing complex shapes without unnecessary strain in the materials. In
HVF, strain required to failure are high and hence the ductility obtained is more than what is
observed during conventional strain rates.

COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL AND HIGH VELOCITY FORMING

Conventional methods High velocity forming methods

Metals forming through the application of Metals forming through the application of
moderate amounts of energy without large amounts of energy in a very short time

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consideration for time of application.
Unable to form all metals especially
difficult to form metals
Spring back effect is observed on the
material after the process
Cost of dies and presses are higher and
hence production cost is more
Suitable for mass production only
Semi-skilled personnel are sufficient for
execution
Moderate safety norms to be followed
There are limitations on the size of
components formed
interval.
Possible to form most metals including
difficult to form metals.
No minimum spring back effect on the
material after the process.
Production cost is low as power hammer or
press is eliminated in the process
Suitable for production volume in small
numbers, batches or mass production
Highly skilled personnel are required from
design to execution
Stringent safety norms to be followed
There are no such limitations on size.large
parts need more energy which need more
expenditure.

This comparison is essential in designing and manufacturing of parts appropriate forming

process based on the following

1. Part size
2. Applicability of part shape
3.
4.
Number of part to be formed
Tooling
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5. Material required

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Comparison in deformation velocity: The velocities of conventional machines are usually
lower by the order of 103 as compared to the high velocity forming system.

In high velocity forming system, velocity ranges from 3 to 300 m/sec and in conventional
machine velocity ranges from 0.03 to 9 m/sec.

Comparison in strain distribution: As compared to conventional forming techniques, the

strain distribution is much more uniform in a single operation of HVF. Thus in HVF, it is easy
to produce complex shapes without inducing unnecessary strains in the material. In high
velocity forming system, trains required to failure are much higher as compared to
conventional process. Thus ductility obtained is more which is typically observed at
conventional stain rates.

Comparison in Part size: In high velocity forming process, there are no fundamental
limitations to the size of the part to be formed. Larger size parts require more energy which
translate into larger capacitor bank higher initial capital expenditure. But in case of
conventional forming there are limitations in size.
Stress waves and deformation in solids
In high energy rate forming, stresses propagate as waves, from the point of application of the
load to the other portions of the specimen. Moreover, the strain rates are high. Above a
certain rate, the stress system loses its homogeneity because the time required for the stress to
propagate become comparable to the rate at which the stress is changing. Therefore, studies

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of high rate deformation under these conditions must necessarily include the determination of
the propagation characteristics of stress waves under the condition of the test.
In principle, any elastic wave problem can be treated theoretically when the values of elastic
constants of the medium are known. In practice, very few such problems can be solved, and
experiments are carried out either to test the validity of approximate theories or to obtain
information about the behavior of the system. Wave travelling through a solid which obeys
Hook’s law are called elastic waves.
Departures from Hooke’s law may manifest themselves in two ways. Firstly, the stress- strain
relation may depart from linearity and also be different for loading and unloading. Such a
behavior is the characteristic of metals. Here the metal is trained plastically beyond the
proportional or elastic limit.
Secondly, the stress – strain relation may depend on the rate of straining so that the material
behaves in a manner analogous to that of viscous fluid; such materials are called viscoelastic.
However, the mechanical behavior of metals is generally not highly rate dependent. Waves
travelling in a rate dependent solid are termed viscoelastic waves while waves travelling in a
solid which shows the phenomenon of yielding so that stress strain curve is concave towards
the strain axis, termed plastic waves.
Types of elastic body waves
In an infinite isotropic elastic solid,two types of waves can propagate,namely dilatational or P
waves which travel with the velocity
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√ N
3
C 1=
( K + G)
ρ
4
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And distortional or S waves which travel with the velocity

C 2=
√ G
ρ

Where K is the bulk modulus, G the shear modulus and ρ the density.

In an elastic plastic solid, there are four characteristic waves, namely, the elastic transverse
wave, the plastic fast waves, and the plastic slow wave. These waves may appear all together
or in part. A solid region with plastic yield can undergo elastic unloading and later again a
plastic reyielding, in which case the governing equations are different. If the different
material properties are taken into account, the wave system also behaves differently.

Elastic Stress Waves

In classical mechanics, when a fee body is acted upon by an external force, the whole body is
assumed to be affected by force immediately, and the body moves with an acceleration, given
by Newton’s second law. Clearly, this is a simplification, since it is impossible that an applied
load can travel throughout the body instantaneously, but it is usually accepted for the general
type of forces encountered in engineering.

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When a solid body is subjected to a rapidly changing load, such as that caused by an impact
or explosion the simplification will not work. In such cases, part of the solid close to the point
of application of the load can be highly stresses, while a more distant area is still unaware of
any loading have occurred. The message that loading has occurred is carried from the point of
application to other parts by stress waves.

Stress waves:

Any material, when it is subjected to a load, the stress induced in it is transmitted as

waves which travel at a finite velocity, and is equal to speed of sound within the material.

When sudden load is applied on a body, the action of load is not transmitted
instantaneously to all parts of the body. The remote potions of the body remain undisturbed
initially. The deformations and stresses produced by the load move through the body in the
form of a disturbance of wave. This wave travels with a finite velocity.

When the load is applied gradually, the stress builds up to its eventual maximum value
slowly. Here, the time taken for the stress waves to propagate through the body is very less as
compared to the time for the load to reach its final valve.

Two types of waves that are important for metal forming are as follows.

1. Elastic waves

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2. Plastic waves

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This can be further divided into two types.
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1. Longitudinal waves
2. Transverse waves or shear waves.

In plastic waves propagation,

C=Velocity of wave propagation

√
dσ
= dϵ
ρ

dσ
Where, ρ is the mass density of the metal and is the slope of engineering stress
dϵ

strain diagram at the value of strain under consideration.

For many metals, the slop of stress-strain curve is less in the plastic range than in the elastic
range. Thus, the velocity of plastic wave propagation is less than that for elastic waves.

Velocity of propagation of longitudinal and transverse waves depends on the following

factors:

1.Elastic constant

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2. Density of material to be formed.

Velocity of longitudinal wave,

1
2 K (1−v) 2
V L=
ρ(1+ v )

Where, K is the bulk modulus of material

ρ is the density of the material

V is the Poisson’s ratio

Again, Velocity of shear wave,

G
Vt = ( ρ ) 1/2

Where, G is the shear modulus

Deformation of Metals

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Deformation of metals means the change in dimensions or forms of material under the action

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of applied forces. The characteristics of a metal depend upon the properties of crystals or

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grains of which the metal is composed. Sometimes this deformation of metals is necessary to
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form various types of shapes without any rupture.There are maily two types of deformation
and they are as follows

1. Elastic deformation

2. Plastic deformation

Elastic deformation: The ability of a material to return to its original position after the
removal of stress is called elasticity of the material. When external load is applied to a metal
crystal, due to stress induced in it, a change of shape take place. This change in shape take
place due to the displacement of the atoms in the material from their normal equilibrium
position. After the removal of the stresses, the atoms will return to their normal equilibrium
position. In elastic deformation the strain produced is directly proportional to the stress
induced.

Plastic Deformation

Two modes of plastic deformation may occur. They are

1. Slip 2. Twinnin

Deformation by slip

Definition: The slip is defined as the shear deformation, which moves the atoms trough many
interatomic distances relative to their initial positions.

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Mechanism of Slip

 The mechanism of slip is actually due to the movement or dislocation in the crystal
lattice.
 The slip mode of deformation is the common mode in many crystals at elevated
temperatures.
 By examination of the surface of a deformed crystal under microscope shows groups
of parallel lines which corresponds to steps on the surface. They are called as slip
lines.
 He shear stress required for producing a slip due to the movement of dislocation is a
small fraction of the theoretical value(G/b) and it matches the observed shear
Estrengths of metals.
 The mechanism of slip requires the growth and movement of dislocation line.
 Therefore the energy required for this movement of dislocation line is given by the
relation.
Eαl. Gb 2

Where E- Young’s modulus

L – Length of dislocation line, G – Shear modulus, B – Unit slip vector

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Explosive Forming

Explosive forming is distinguished from conventional forming in that the punch or diaphragm
is replaced by an explosive charge. The explosives used are generally high – explosive
chemicals, gaseous mixtures, or 3 propellants. There are two type of techniques of high –
explosive forming: (i) the stand – off technique (ii) the contact technique.

Tandoff Technique: The sheet metal blank is clamped over a die and the assembly is
lowered into a tank filled with water. The air in the die is pumped out. The explosive charge

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is placed at some predetermined distance from the work piece (Figure 1.1). On detonation of
the explosive, a pressure pulse of very high intensity is produced. A gas bubble is also
produced, which expands spherically and then collapses. When the pressure pulse impinges
against the work piece, the metal is deformed into the die with a velocity as high as 120 m/s
(ASTME 1964). The use of water as the energy transfer medium ensures a uniform
transmission of energy and muffles the sound of the explosive blast. The process is versatile –
a large variety of shape can be formed, there is virtually no limit to the size of the work piece,
and it is suitable for low – quantity production as well (Ezra 1973). The process has been
successfully used to form steel plates 0f 25 mm thick and 400 mm length and to bulge steel
tubes with thickers as high as 25 mm.

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Contact Technique: The explosive charge in the form of a cartridge is held in direct contact
with the work piece while the detonation is initiated. The detonation builds up extremely high
pressures (upto 30,000MPa) on the surface of the work piece, resulting in metal deformation,
and possible fracture. The process is used for bulging tubes locally. (Figure 1.2).

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Electro Hydraulic Forming

Electro hydraulic forming (EHF), also known as electro spark forming, is a process in which
electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy for the forming of metallic parts. A
bank of capacitors is first charged with high voltage, and then discharged across a gap
between two electrodes, causing explosions inside the hollow work piece, which is filled with
some suitable medium, generally water, as shown in Figure 1.3. These explosions produce
shock waves that travel radially in all directions at high velocity until they meet some

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obstruction. If the discharge energy is sufficiently high, the hollow work piece is deformed.

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by varying the amount of energy released. OTE
The rate of deformation can be controlled by applying external restraints in the form of die or
N
K

Electro Hydraulic and Electromagnetic Forming

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 Electro Hydraulic Forming

A sudden electrical discharge in the form of sparks is produced between electrodes and this
discharge produces a shock wave in the water medium. This shock wave deforms the work
plate and collapses it into the die.

The characteristics of this process are similar to those of explosive forming. The major
difference, however, is that a chemical explosive is replaced by a capacitor bank, which
stores the electrical energy.

The capacitor is charged through a charging circuit. When the switch is closed, a spark is

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produced between electrodes and a shock wave or pressure pulse is created. The energy

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released is much lesser than that released in explosive forming.

Process Characteristics:

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i) Stand off distance: It must be optimum.
ii) Capacitor used: The energy of the pressure pulse depends on the size of capacitor.
iii) Transfer medium: Usually water is used.
iv) Vacuum: the die cavity must be evacuated to prevent adiabatic heating of the work due
to a sudden compression of air.
v) Material properties with regard to the application of high rates of strain.

Advantages:

i) Better control of the pressure pulse as source of energy is electrical- which can be easily
controlled.

ii) Safer in handling than the explosive materials.

iii) More suitable if the work size is small to medium.

iv) Thin plates can be formed with smaller amounts of energy.

v) The process does not depend on the electrical properties of the work material.

Limitations:

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i) Suitable only for smaller works

ii) Need for vacuum makes the equipment more complicated.

Applications:
They include smaller radar dish, cone and other shapes in thinner and small works.

Electromagnetic forming
The electrical energy stored in a capacitor bank is used to produce opposing magnetic fields
around a tubular work piece, surrounded by current carrying coils. The coil is firmly held and
hence the work piece collapses into the die cavity due to magnetic repelling force, thus
assuming die shape.

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Process details/ Steps:

i) The electrical energy is stored in the capacitor bank.

ii) The tubular work piece is mounted on a mandrel having the die cavity to
produce shape on the tube.
iii) A primary coil is placed around the tube and mandrel assembly.
iv) When the switch is closed, the energy is discharged through the coil.
v) The coil produces a varying magnetic field around it.
vi) In the tube a secondary current is induced, which creates its own magnetic
field in the opposite direction.
vii) The directions of these two magnetic fields oppose one another and hence the
rigidly
held coil repels the work into the die cavity.
viii) The work tube collapses into the die, assuming its shape.

Process parameters:

i) Work piece size

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ii) Electrical conductivity of the work material.

iii) Size of the capacitor bank

iv) The strength of the current, which decides the strength of the magnetic field and the

force applied.

v) Insulation on the coil.

vi) Rigidity of the coil.

Advantages:
i) Suitable for small tubes
ii) Operations like collapsing, bending and crimping can be easily done.
iii) Electrical energy applied can be precisely controlled and hence the process is
accurately
controlled.
iv) The process is safer compared to explosive forming.
v) Wide range of applications.
Limitations:
i) Applicable only for electrically conducting materials.
ii) Not suitable for large work pieces.

.
iii) Rigid clamping of primary coil is critical.
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Applications:
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iv) Shorter life of the coil due to large forces acting on it.

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i) Crimping of coils, tubes, wires
ii) Bending of tubes into complex shapes
iii) Bulging of thin tubes.

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