Module1

1. Introduction: Need and comparison between traditional, non-traditional and micro & nano
machining process.
2. Powder Metallurgy: Need of P/M - Powder Production methods:- Atomization,
electrolysıs, Reduction of oxides, Carbonyls (Process parameters, characteristics of powder
produced in each method).
3 Powder characteristics: properties of fine powder, size, size distribution, shape,
compressibility, purity etc.
4 Mixing – Compaction: - techniques, pressure distribution, HIP & CIP.
5 Mechanism of sintering, driving force for pore shirking, solid and liquid phase sintering -
Impregnation and Infiltration Advantages, disadvantages and specific applications of P/M.
6 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC): need – relays - logic ladder program –timers,
simple problems only.
7 Point to point, straight cut and contouring positioning - incremental and absolute systems –
open loop and closed loop systems - control loops in contouring systems: principle of
operation.

INTRODUCTION:
Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups and they are primary
manufacturing processes and secondary manufacturing processes. The former ones provide
basic shape and size to the material as per designer’s requirement. Casting, forming, powder
metallurgy are such processes to name a few. Secondary manufacturing processes provide the

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final shape and size with tighter control on dimension, surface characteristics etc. Material

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removal processes are mainly the secondary manufacturing processes.

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Material removal processes once again can be divided into mainly two groups and they are
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“Conventional Machining Processes” and “Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes”.
Examples of conventional machining processes are turning, boring, milling, shaping,
broaching, slotting, grinding etc. Similarly, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic
Machining (USM), Water Jet and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (WJM and AWJM), Electro-
discharge Machining (EDM) are some of the Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes.
Conventional machining method : Conventional machines requires direct contact of tool and
work piece/material. For example to cut an aluminium bar, an iron fast rotating cutter may be
used. These methods involves a physical contact between the cutting tool and the material
being cut or processed.

Unconventional Machining processes: As the name suggest, unconventional machining

method involves the use of modern and advanced technology for machine processing. There
is no physical contact between the tool and the work piece in such process. Tools used for
cutting in unconventional methods are laser beams, electric beam, electric arc, infrared beam,
Plasma cutting and so on depending on the type of working material.

Difference between Conventional and non-conventional machining processes are:

Conventional machining process involved tool wearing as there is a physical contact between
the tool and the work piece. In non-conventional process, this is not the case.

1. Non-conventional tools are more accurate and precise than the conventional tool.

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2. No noise pollution is created as a result of non-conventional methods as these tools
are much quieter.

3. Tool life is long for non-conventional processing.

4. Non-conventional tools are very expensive than the conventional tools.

5. Non-conventional tools have complex setup and hence requires a skilful operation by
expert workers, whereas conventional tools do not require any special expert for its
operation and are quite simple in set-up.

6. Spare parts of conventional machines are easily available but not for non-
conventional machines.
Which machine is more suitable for composite materials?
For a composite material that is composed of different type of materials of different
properties, I advise you to use non-conventional machining process as these are more
precise and accurate; and will result in fine surface finish.

Sl Conventional Process Non Conventional Process

No.
1 The cutting tool and work piece are There is no physical contact between
always in physical contact with the tool and work piece, In some non-
relative motion with each other,
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traditional process tool wear exists.

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which results in friction and tool
wear.
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Material removal rate is limited by
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mechanical properties of work
NTM can machine difficult to cut and
hard to cut materials like
material. titanium, ceramics, nimonics,
SST, composites, semiconducting
3 Relative motion between the tool materials
Many NTM are capable of producing
and work is typically rotary or complex 3D shapes and cavities
reciprocating. Thus the shape of
work is limited to circular or flat
shapes. In spite of CNC systems,
production of 3D surfaces is still a
difficult task.
4 Machining of small cavities , slits , Machining of small cavities, slits and
blind holes or through holes are Production of non-circular, micro sized,
difficult large aspect ratio, shall entry angle holes
are easy using NTM
5 Use relative simple and inexpensive Nontraditional processes requires
machinery and readily available expensive tools and equipment as well as
cutting tools skilled labor, which increase the
production cost significantly
6 Capital cost and maintenance cost is Capital cost and maintenance cost is high
low
7. Traditional processes are well Mechanics of Material removal of Some
established and physics of process is of NTM process are still under research
well understood

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 8 Conventional process mostly uses Most NTM uses energy in direct form For
mechanical energy example: laser, Electron beam in its direct
forms are used in LBM and EBM
respectively.
9 Surface finish and tolerances are High surface finish(up to 0.1 micron) and
limited by machining inaccuracies tolerances (25 Microns)can be achieved
10 High metal removal rate. Low material removal rate.

Micro Machining process

Micro-machining is the most basic technology for the production of such miniature parts and
components. Micro machining is defined as the ability to produce features with the
dimensions from 1 m to 999 m or when the volume of the material removed is at the micro
level. Lithography based micro-machining technology uses silicon as material to produce
integrated circuitry components and microstructures. However, these methods, in general,
lack the ability of machining three-dimensional shapes because of poor machining control in
the Z axis.
Applications: In recent years, manufacturing industry has witnessed a rapid increase
in demand for micro-products and micro-components in many industrial sectors
including the electronics, optics, medical, biotechnology and automotive sectors.
Examples of applications include medical implants, drug delivery systems,
diagnostic devices, connectors, switches, micro-reactors, micro-engines, micro pumps and
printing heads.

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Production of Micro-Compressor

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Production of Micro-Turbine Impeller
Nozzle for Diesel Fuel Injectors
Inkjet Printer Manufacturing
Cooling Holes in Turbine Blades
Micromachining Techniques
1. Micro-Ultrasonic Machining
2. Mechanical Micromachining
3. Micro-Electrochemical Machining
4. Electrical Discharge Machining

Nano manufacturing process

Nano manufacturing is both the production of nano scaled materials, which can be powders
or fluids, and the manufacturing of parts "bottom up" from nano scaled materials or "top
down" in smallest steps for high precision, used in several technologies such as laser ablation,
etching and others. Nano manufacturing differs from molecular manufacturing, which is the
manufacture of complex, nanoscale structures by means of nonbiological mechanosynthesis.
the prefix "nano" means one-billionth, or 10-9; therefore one nanometer is one-billionth of a
meter. It’s difficult to imagine just how small that is, so here are some examples:

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A sheet of paper is about 100,000 nanometers thick A strand of human DNA is 2.5
nanometers in diameter There are 25,400,000 nanometers in one inch
A human hair is approximately 80,000- 100,000 nanometers wide A single gold atom is about
a third of a nanometer in diameter
On a comparative scale, if the diameter of a marble was one nanometer, then diameter of the
Earth would be about one meter
One nanometer is about as long as your fingernail grows in one second
The illustration below has three visual examples of the size and the scale of nanotechnology,
showing just how small things at the nanoscale actually are.
Within the top-down and bottom-up categories of nanomanufacturing, there are a growing
number of new processes that enable nanomanufacturing. Among these are:
1. Chemical vapor deposition is a process in which chemicals react to produce very pure,
high-performance films
2. Molecular beam epitaxy is one method for depositing highly controlled thin films
3. Atomic layer epitaxy is a process for depositing one-atom-thick layers on a surface
4. Dip pen lithography is a process in which the tip of an atomic force microscope is
"dipped" into a chemical fluid and then used to "write" on a surface, like an old
fashioned ink pen onto paper
5. Nanoimprint lithography is a process for creating nanoscale features by "stamping" or
"printing" them onto a surface
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6. Roll-to-roll processing is a high-volume process to produce nanoscale devices on a
roll of ultrathin plastic or metal

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7. Self-assembly describes the process in which a group of components come together to
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form an ordered structure without outside direction
Structures and properties of materials can be improved through these nanomanufacturing
processes. Such nanomaterials can be stronger, lighter, more durable, water-repellent, anti-
reflective, self-cleaning, ultraviolet- or infrared-resistant, antifog, antimicrobial, scratch-
resistant, or electrically conductive, among other traits. Taking advantage of these properties,
today's nanotechnology-enabled products range from baseball bats and tennis rackets to
catalysts for refining crude oil and ultrasensitive detection and identification of biological and
chemical toxins.

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.

Powder metallurgy
Introduction
Powder metallurgy is a process of making components from metallic powders. Initially, it
was
used to replace castings for metals which were difficult to melt because of high melting point.
The
development of technique made it possible to produce a product economically, and today it
occupies an important place in the field of metal process.
Characteristics of Metal Powder
Following are the important characteristics of metal powders.
(a) Particle shape (b) Particle size
(c) Particle size distribution (d) Flow rate
(e) Compressibility (f) Apparent density
(g) Purity
(a) Particle Shape: The particle shape depends largely on the method of powder
manufacture. The shape may be special nodular, irregular, angular, and dendritic. The particle

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shape influences the flow characteristics of powders. Special particles have excellent

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sintering properties. However, irregular shaped particles are good at green strength because

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they will inter look on computing.
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(b) Particle Size: The particle size influences the control of porosity, compressibility and
amount of shrinkage. It is determined by passing the powder through standard sieves or by
microscopic measurement.
(c) Particle Size Distribution: It is specified in term of a sieve analysis, the amount of
powder passing through 100, 200 etc., mess sieves. Particle size distribution influences the
packing of powder and its behaviour during moulding and sintering.
(d) Flow Rate: It is the ability of powder to flow readily and confirm to the mould cavity. It
determines the rate of production and economy.
(e) Compressibility: It is defined as volume of initial powder (powder loosely filled in
cavity)
to the volume of compact part. It depends on particle size, distribution and shape.
(f) Apparent Density: It depends on particle size and is defined as the ratio of volume to
weight of loosely filled mixture.
(g) Purity: Metal powders should be free from impurities as the impurities reduces the life of
dies and effect sintering process. The oxides and the gaseous impurities can be removed from
the
part during sintering by use of reducing atmosphere.
BASIC STEPS OF THE PROCESS
The manufacturing of parts by powder metallurgy process involves the following steps:
(a) Manufacturing of metal powders
(b) Blending and mixing of powders
(c) Compacting

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(d) Sintering
(e) Finishing operation
A .MANUFACTURING OF METAL POWDERS
There are various methods available for the production of powders, depending upon the type
and
nature of metal. Some of the important processes are:
1. Atomization 2. Machining
3. Crushing and Milling 4. Reduction
5. Electrolytic Deposition 6. Shotting
7. Condensation

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1. Atomization
In this method as shown in Fig. (a), molten metal is forced through a small orifice and
is disintegrated by a powerful jet of compressed air, inert gas or water jet. These small
particles are then allowed to solidify. These are generally spherical in
shape.Automation is used mostly for low melting point metals/alloy such as brass,
bronze, zinc, tin, lead and aluminium powders.

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2. Reduction: Pure metal is obtained by reducing its oxide with a suitable reducing gas
at an elevated temperature (below the melting point) in a controlled furnace. The
reduced product is then crushed and milled to a powder.
Sponge iron powder is produced this way
Fe3O4 + 4C = 3Fe + 4CO
Fe3O4 + 4CO = 3Fe + 4CO2
Copper powder by
Cu2O + H2 = 2Cu + H2O
Tungsten, Molybdenum, Ni and Cobalt are made by the method.

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3. Electrolytic Deposition or Electrolysis: This method is commonly used for producing

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iron and copper powders. This process is similar to electroplating. For making copper

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powder, copper plates are placed as anodes in the tank of electrolyte, whereas the
aluminium plates are placed into electrolyte to act as anode. When D. C. current is
passed through the electrolyte, the copper gets deposited on cathode. The cathode
plates are taken out from electrolyte tank and the deposited powder is scrapped off.
The powder is washed, dried and pulverised to produce powder of the desired grain
size. The powder is further subjected to heat treatment to remove work hardness
effect. The cost of manufacturing is high.
4. Mechanical Alloying: In this method, powders of two or more pure metals are mixed
in a ball mill. Under the impact of the hard balls, the powders are repeatedly fractured
and welded together by forming alloy under diffusion. A production of composites
with controlled uniform distribution of second phase in the metallic matrix is its
principle
5. Shotting: In this method, the molten metal is poured through a siever or orifice and is
cooled by dropping into water. This produces spherical particles of large size. This
method is commonly used for metals of law melting points.
6. Condensation: In this method, metals are boiled to produce metal vapours and then
condensed to obtain metal powders, This process is applied to volatile metals such as
zinc, magnesium and cadmium.

(b) BLENDING AND MIXING OF POWDERS

A single powder may not fulfil all the requisite properties and hence, powders of different
materials with wide range of mechanical properties are blended to form a final part.
Blending is carried out for several purposes as follows.

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 1. Blending imparts uniformity in the shapes of the powder particles,
2. Blending facilitates mixing of different powder particles to impart wide ranging
physical and mechanical properties,
3. Lubricants can be added during the blending process to improve the flow
characteristics of the powder particles reducing friction between particles and dies,
4. Binders can be added to the mixture of the powder particles to enhance the green
strength during the powder compaction process.
(c) Compacting
The main purpose of compacting is converting loose powder into a green compact of
accurate
shape and size. The following methods are adopted for compacting:

2. Centrifugal
1. Pressing
compacting
3. Slip casting 4. Extrusion
5. Gravity
6. Rolling
sintering
7. Isostatic
8. Explosive moulding
moulding

1. Pressing: The metal powders are placed in a die cavity and compressed to form a
component shaped to the contour of the die as illustrated in Fig.. The pressure used for

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producing green compact of the component vary from 80 Mpa to 1400 Mpa, depending

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upon the material and the characteristics of the powder used. Mechanical presses are used

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for compacting objects at low pressure. Hydraulic presses are for compacting objects at
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high pressure.
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2. Centrifugal Compacting: In this method, the moulder after it is filled with powder is
centrifugal to get a compact of high and uniform density at a pressure of 3 Mpa. This
method is employed for heavy metals such as tungsten carbide.
3.Slip Casting: In this method, the powder is converted into slurry with water and poured
into
the mould made of plaster of paris. The liquid in the slurry is gradually absorbed by the

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 mould
leaving the solid compact within the mould. The mould may be vibrated to increase the
density of
the compact.This technique is used for materials that are relatively incompressible by
conventional die compaction. The main drawback of this process is relatively slower
process because it takes larger time for the fluid to be absorbed by the method.
4. Extrusion: This method is employed to produce the components with high density.
Both cold and hot extrusion processes are for compacting specific materials. In cold
extrusion, the metal powder is mixed with binder and this mixture is compressed into
billet. The binder is removed before or during sintering. The billet is charged into a
container and then forced through the die by means of ram. The cross-section of product
depends on the opening of the die. Cold extrusion process is used for cemented carbide
drills and cutters of ram. The cross-section of products depends on the opening of the die.
Cold extrusion process is used for cemented carbide drills and cutters.
In the hot extrusion, the powder is compacted into billet and is heated to extruding
temperature in non-oxidising atmosphere. The billet is placed in the container and
extruded through a die. This method is used for refractive berium and nuclear solid
materials.
5. Gravity Sintering: This process is used for making sheets for controlled porosity. In
this process. the powder is poured on ceramic tray to form an uniform layer and is then
sintered up to 48 hours in ammonia gas at high temperature. The sheets are then rolled to
desired thickness.Porous sheet of stainless steel are made by this process and popularly
used for fitters.
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6. Rolling: This method is used for making continuous strips and rods having controlled

between
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porosity with uniform mechanical properties. In this method, the metal powder is fed
two
which compress and interlock the powder particles to form a sheet of sufficient strength
rolls

as shown
in Fig. It then situated, rerolled and heat treated if necessary. The metals that can be rolled
are Cu, Brass, Bronze, Ni, Stainless steel and Monel.

7. Isostatic Moulding: In this method, metal powder is placed in an elastic mould which is
subjected to gas pressure in the range of 65-650 Mpa from all sides. After pressing. The
compact is removed from gas chamber. If the fluid is used as press medium then it is called as
hydrostatic pressing. The advantages of this method are: uniform strength in all directions,

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higher green compact strength and low equipment cost. This method is used for tungsten,
molybdenum, niobium etc.
8. Explosive Compacting: In this method, the pressure generated by an explosive is used to
compact the metal powder. Metal powder is placed in water proof bags which are immersed
in water container cylinder of high wall thickness. Due to sudden deterioration of the charge
at the end of the cylinder, the pressure of the cylinder increase. This pressure is used to press
the metal powder to form green compact.
Sintering
Sintering refers to the heating of the compacted powder perform to a specific temperature
(below the melting temperature of the principle powder particles while well above the
temperature that would allow diffusion between the neighbouring particles). Sintering
facilitates the bonding action between the individual powder particles and increase in the
strength of the final part. The heating process must be carried out in a controlled, inert or
reducing atmosphere or in vacuum for very critical parts to prevent oxidation. Prior to the
sintering process, the compacted powder perform is brittle and confirm to very low green
strength. The nature and strength of the bond between the particles depends on the
mechanism of diffusion and plastic flow of the powder particles, and evaporation of volatile
material from the in the compacted preform. Bonding among the powder particles takes
places in three ways: (1) melting of minor constituents in the powder particles, (2) diffusion
between the powder particles, and (3) mechanical bonding. The time, temperature and the
furnace atmosphere are the three critical factors that control the sintering process. Sintering
process enhances the density of the final part by filling up the incipient holes and increasing

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the area of contact among the powder particles in the compact perform.
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Sintering Sequence on a Microscopic Scale

(1) Particle bonding is initiated at contact points;
(2) Contact points grow into "necks";
(3) Pores between particles are reduced in size;

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(4) Grain boundaries develop between particles in place of necked regions.

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Finishing Operations
These are secondary operations intended to provide dimensional tolerances, physical and
better surface finish. They are:

1. Sizing
2. Coining
3. Machining
4. Impregnation
5. Infiltration
6. Heat treatment
7. Plating

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ADVANTAGES OF POWDER METALLURGY

1. Although the cost of making powder is high there is no loss of material. The components
produced are clean, bright and ready for use.
2. The greatest advantage of this process is the control of the composition of the product.
3. Components can be produced with good surface finish and close tolerance.
4. High production rates.
5. Complex shapes can be produced.
6. Wide range of properties such as density, porosity and particle size can be obtained for
particular applications.
7. There is usually no need for subsequent machining or finishing operations.
8. This process facilitates mixing of both metallic and non-metallic powders to give products
of

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special characteristics.
9. Porous parts can be produced that could not be made any other way.
10. Impossible parts (cutting tool bits) can be produced.
11. Highly qualified or skilled labour is not required.
LIMITATION OF POWDER METALLURGY
1. The metal powders and the equipment used are very costly.
2. Storing of powders offer great difficulties because of possibility of fire and explosion
hazards.
3. Parts manufactured by this process have poor ductility.
4. Sintering of low melting point powders like lead, zinc, tin etc., offer serious difficulties.
APPLICATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY
Powder metallurgy techniques are used for making large number of components. Some of the
application are as follows:
1. Self-Lubricating Bearing and Filters: Porous bronze bearings are made by mixing copper
and tin powder in correct proportions, cold pressed to the desired shape and then sintered.
These bearings soak up considerable quantity of oil. Hence during service, these bearings
produce a constant supply of lubricant to the surface due to capillary action. These are used
where lubricating is not possible. Porous filters can be manufactured and are used to remove,
undesirable materials from liquids and gases.
2. Friction Materials: These are made by powder metallurgy. Clutch liners and Brake bands
are the example of friction materials.
3. Gears and Pump Rotors: Gears and pump rotor for automobile oil pumps are manufactured

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by powder metallurgy. Iron powder is mixed with graphite, compacted under a pressure of 40

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kg/cm and sintered in an electric furnace with an atmosphere and hydrocarbon gas. These are
impregnated with oil.

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4. Refractor Materials: Metals with high melting points are termed as refractory metals.
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These basically include four metals tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum and niobium.
Refractory metals as well as their alloys are manufactured by powder metallurgy. The
application are not limited to lamp filaments and heating elements, they also include space
technology and the heavy metal used in radioactive shielding.
5. Electrical Contacts and Electrodes: Electrical contacts and resistance welding electrodes
are made by powder metallurgy. A combination of copper, silver and a refractory metal like
tungsten. Molybdenum and nickle provides the required characteristics like wear resistant,
refractory and electrical conductivity.
6. Magnet Materials: Soft and permanent magnets are manufactured by this process. Soft
magnets are made of iron, iron-silicon and iron-nickle alloys. These are used in D.C. motors,
or generators as armatures and in measuring instruments. Permanent magnets known as
Alnico which is a mixture of nickle, aluminium, cobalt, copper and iron are manufactured by
this technique.
7. Cemented Carbides: These are very important products of powder metallurgy and find
wide applications as cutting tools, wire drawing dies and deep drawing dies. These consist of
carbides of tungsten, tantalum, titanium and molybdenum. The actual proportions of various
carbides depend upon its applications, either cobalt or nickle is used as the bonding agent
while sintering.

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 Program Introduction
What type of task might a control system have? It might be

mable required to control a sequence of events or maintain some

variable constant or follow some prescribed change. Example
in case of a four wheeler, the different controls are used for
logic control the vehicle. In this case steering wheel, break etc are
controllers for vehicle. The break controls the speed and
steering controls the direction. So every system role of
controller controller is very important. The controllers controls the
different parameters which are affecting the system

s performance.
The logical controllers are which controls different
parameters with certain logic. Example: - We have a controller with elevator, if you are in the
4th floor and if you want to go to ground floor, then you will press the ground floor button.
And same process will do it from fifth floor and second floor at same time. So the elevator
controller will give the priority for the first come first bases. So the lift will get the person
from 4th floor and go to ground floor, on the way it will stop at 2 nd because the controller
come to know that the 2nd floor comes after 4th floor. So lift will stop at second floor and get
person from second floor, then go to ground floor .So controlling is performing with the help
of certain logics.

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A programmable logic controller (PLC) is an industrial grade computer that is capable of

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being programmed to perform control functions. The programmable controller has eliminated
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much of the hardwiring associated with conventional relay control circuits. Other benefits
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include fast response, easy programming and installation, high control speed, network
compatibility, troubleshooting and testing convenience, and high reliability.

PLCs have the great advantage that the same basic controller can be used with a wide range
of control systems. To modify a control system and the rules that are to be used, all that is
necessary is for an operator to key in a different set of instructions. There is no need to
rewire. The result is a flexible, cost effective, system which can be used with control systems
which vary quite widely in their nature and complexity. PLCs are similar to computers but
whereas computers are optimised for calculation and display tasks, PLCs are optimised for
control tasks and the industrial environment.
Thus PLCs are:

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1 Rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity and noise.
2 Have interfacing for inputs and outputs already inside the controller.
3 Are easily programmed and have an easily understood programming language which is
primarily concerned with logic and switching operations.
Initially the PLC was used to replace relay logic, but its ever-increasing range of functions
means that it is found in many and more complex applications. Because the structure of a
PLC is based on the same principles as those employed in computer architecture, it is capable
not only of performing relay switching tasks but also of performing other applications such as
timing, counting, calculating, comparing, and the processing of analog signals.
In case of relays we have to hardwire to perform a specific function. When the system
requirements change, the relay wiring has to be changed or modified. So PLC are inexpensive
and give more flexibility compare to relay based system.
Other Benefits of PLC’s
 Increase reliability: Once a program has been written and tested, it can be easily
downloaded to other PLCs. Since all logic is contained in the PLC’s memory, there is
no chance of making a logic wiring error. It will reduce the use external wiring for
control the process.
 More Flexibility: It is easy to create and update a program in a PLC. With a PLC
relationship b/w the input and output are determined by the user programs. Original
equipment manufacturers can provide system updates by sending out a new program.

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Low cost : PLCs were originally designed to reduce relay control logic and the cost
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power applications.
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savings have been so significant that relay control is becoming obsolete except for

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Communications Capability: It can communicate with other controllers or computer
equipment to perform such functions as supervisory control, data gathering,
monitoring devices, process parameters etc.
 Faster Response Time: It is designed for high speed real-time applications. The
programmable controller operations in real time, which means that an event taking
place in the field will result in the execution of an operation or output.
 Easy to troubleshoot: PLCs have resident diagnostics and override functions that
allow user to easily trace and correct software and hardware problems.
 Easier to Test field Devices: A PLC control panel has the ability to check field
devices at common point. By having each device wired back to a common point on a
PLC module, each device could be checked for operation fairly quickly.
Hardware
Typically a PLC system has the basic functional components of processor unit, memory,
power supply unit, input/output interface section, communications interface and the
programming device. Figure shows the basic arrangement.

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 The PLC system
1 The processor unit or central processing unit (CPU) is the unit containing the
microprocessor and this interprets the input signals and carries out the control actions,
according to the program stored in its memory, communicating the decisions as action signals
to the outputs.
2 The power supply unit is needed to convert the mains a.c. voltage to the low d.c. voltage (5

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V) necessary for the processor and the circuits in the input and output interface modules.
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3 The programming device is used to enter the required program into the memory of the
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processor. The program is developed in the device and then transferred to the memory unit of
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the PLC.
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4 The memory unit is where the program is stored that is to be used for the control actions to
be exercised by the microprocessor and data stored from the input for processing and for the
output for outputting.
5 The input and output sections are where the processor receives information from external
devices and communicates information to external devices. The inputs might thus be from
switches, as illustrated in Figure 1.1(a) with the automatic drill, or other sensors such as
photo-electric cells, as in the counter mechanism in Figure 1.1(b), temperature sensors, or
flow sensors, etc. The outputs might be to motor starter coils, solenoid valves, etc. Input and
output devices can be classified as giving signals which are discrete, digital or analogue
(Figure 1.5). Devices giving discrete or digital signals are ones where the signals are either
off or on. Thus a switch is a device giving a discrete signal, either no voltage or a voltage.
Digital devices can be considered to be essentially discrete devices which give a sequence of
on-off signals. Analogue devices give signals whose size is proportional to the size of the
variable being monitored. For example, a temperature sensor may give a voltage proportional
to the temperature.

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Input and output devices can be classified as giving signals which are discrete, digital or
analogue .Devices giving discrete or digital signals are ones where the signals are either off
or on. Thus a switch is a device giving a discrete signal, either no voltage or a voltage. Digital
devices can be considered to be essentially discrete devices which give a sequence of on-off
signals. Analogue devices give signals whose size is proportional to the size of the variable
being monitored. For example, a temperature sensor may give a voltage proportional to the
temperature.

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6 The communications interface is used to receive and transmit data on communication
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networks from or to other remote PLCs (Figure 1.6).It is concerned with such actions as

connection management.
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device verification, data acquisition, synchronisation between user applications and
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With the relay type, the signal from the PLC output is used to operate a relay and is able to
switch currents of the order of a few amperes in an external circuit. The relay not only allows
small currents to switch much larger currents but also isolates the PLC from the external
circuit. Relays are, however, relatively slow to operate. Relay outputs are suitable for a.c. and
d.c. switching. They can withstand high surge currents and voltage transients.
Programming PLCs
Programming devices can be a hand-held device, a desktop console or a computer. Only

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when the program has been designed on the programming device and is ready is it transferred
to the memory unit of the PLC.
1 Hand-held programming devices will normally contain enough memory to allow the unit to
retain programs while being carried from one place to another.
2 Desktop consoles are likely to have a visual display unit with a full keyboard and screen
display.
3 Personal computers are widely configured as program development work-stations. Some
PLCs only require the computer to have appropriate software; others require special
communication cards to interface with the PLC. A major advantage of using a computer is
that the program can be stored on the hard disk or a CD and copies easily made.
Principles of Operation

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Here a mixer motor is to be used to automatically stir the liquid in a vat when the temperature
and pressure reach preset values. In addition, direct manual operation of the motor is
provided by means of a separate pushbutton station. The process is monitored with
temperature and pressure sensor switches that close their respective contacts when conditions
reach their preset values.

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The PLC ladder logic program would be constructed and entered into the memory of the
CPU. A typical ladder logic program for this process is shown in Figure 1-20. The format

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used is similar to the layout of the hardwired relay ladder circuit. The individual symbols
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represent instructions, whereas the numbers represent the instruction location addresses. To

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program the controller, you enter these instructions one by one into the processor memory
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from the programming device. Each input and output device is given an address, which lets
the PLC know where it is physically connected. Note that the I/O address format will differ,
depending on the PLC model and manufacturer. Instructions are stored in the user program
portion of the processor memory. During the program scan the controller monitors the inputs,
executes the control program, and changes the output accordingly.
During the program scan, the controller monitors the inputs, executes the control program,
and changes the output accordingly. Each symbol (looks like a normally open contact) is an
instruction. The symbol is considered to represent a coil that, when energized, will energize
the device that is wired to the respective output. In the ladder logic program of Figure 1-20,
the coil O/1 is energized when contacts I/1 and I/2 are closed or when contact I/3 is closed.
Either of these conditions provides a continuous logic path from left to right across the rung
that includes the coil.
Following sequence of events:
• First, the pressure switch, temperature switch, and pushbutton inputs are examined and their
status is recorded in the controller’s memory.
• A closed contact is recorded in memory as logic 1 and an open contact as logic 0.
• Next the ladder diagram is evaluated, with each internal contact given an OPEN or
CLOSED status according to its recorded 1 or 0 state.
• When the states of the input contacts provide logic continuity from left to right across the
rung, the output coil memory location is given a logic 1 value and the output module
interface contacts will close.

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• When there is no logic continuity of the program rung, the output coil memory location is
set to logic 0 and the output module interface contacts will be open.
• The completion of one cycle of this sequence by the controller is called a scan. The scan
time, the time required for one full cycle, provides a measure of the speed of response of the
PLC.
• Generally, the output memory location is updated during the scan but the actual output is
not updated until the end of the program scan during the I/O scan.

Fundamentals of Logic
The Binary Concept: The term binary principle refers to the idea that many things can be
thought of as existing in only one of two states. These states are 1 and 0. There is no in
between state so when information is processed the outcome is either yes or no.
A logic gate is a circuit with several inputs but only one output that is activated by particular
combinations of input conditions. The two-state binary concept, applied to gates, can be the
basis for making decisions. The high beam automobile lighting circuit of Figure 4-1 is an
example of a logical AND decision. For this application, the high beam light can be turned on
only when the light switch AND the high beam switch are closed.

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The AND Function: The basic rules that apply to an AND gate are:
• If all inputs are 1, the output will be 1.
• If any input is 0, the output will be 0.
The AND logic gate operates similarly to control devices connected in series,

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The OR Function
The symbol drawn in Figure 4-6 is that of an OR gate. An OR gate can have any number of
inputs but only one output.
Figure 4-7 illustrates the four possible combinations of inputs for a 2-input OR gate. The
basic rules that apply to an OR gate are:
• If one or more inputs are 1, the output is 1.
• If all inputs are 0, the output will be 0.

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The NOT Function
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The symbol drawn in Figure 4-9 is that of a NOT function.Unlike the AND and OR
functions, the NOT function can have only one input. The NOT output is 1 if the input is
0.The output is 0 if the input is 1. The result of the NOT operation is always the inverse of the
input, and the NOT function is, therefore, called an inverter.

The NOT symbol placed at the output of an AND gate would invert the normal output result.
An AND gate with an inverted output is called a NAND gate. The NAND gate symbol and
truth table are shown in Figure 4-12. The NAND function is often used in integrated circuit
logic arrays and can be used in programmable controllers to solve complex logic.

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The same rule about inverting the normal output result applies if a NOT symbol is placed at
the output of the OR gate. The normal output is inverted, and the function is referred to as a
NOR gate. The NOR gate symbol and truth table are shown in Figure 4-13.

The Exclusive-OR (XOR) Function

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An often-used combination of gates is the exclusive-OR (XOR) function. The XOR gate
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symbol and truth table are shown in Figure 4-14. The output of this circuit is HIGH only

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when one input or the other is HIGH, but not both.The exclusive-OR gate is commonly used
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for the comparison of two binary.

Boolean algebra
The mathematical study of the binary number system and logic is called Boolean algebra. The
purpose of this algebra is to provide a simple way of writing complicated combinations of
logic statements. Figure 4-15 summarizes the basic operators of Boolean algebra as they
relate to the basic AND, OR, and NOT functions.
PLC digital systems may be designed using Boolean algebra. Circuit functions are
represented by Boolean equations. Figure 4-16 illustrates how logic operators AND, NAND,
OR, NOR, and NOT are used singly to form logical statements. Figure 4-17 illustrates how
basic logic operators are used in combination to form Boolean equations.

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COMMUTATIVE LAW
A+B=B+A
A⋅B=B⋅A
ASSOCIATIVE LAW
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(A ⋅ B) ⋅ C = A ⋅ (B ⋅ C )
DISTRIBUTIVE LAW
A ⋅ (B + C) = (A ⋅ B) + (A ⋅ C)

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A + (B ⋅ C) = (A + B) ⋅ (A + C)
This law holds true only in Boolean algebra.
Hardwired Logic versus Programmed Logic
The term hardwired logic refers to logic control functions that are determined by the way
devices are electrically interconnected. Hardwired logic can be implemented using relays and
relay ladder schematics. Relay ladder schematics are universally used and understood in
industry. Figure 4-22 shows a typical relay ladder schematic of a motor stop/start control
station with pilot lights. The control scheme is drawn between two vertical supply lines. All
the components are placed between these two lines, called rails or legs, connecting the two
power lines with what look like rungs of a ladder—thus the name, relay ladder schematic.
Hardwired logic is fxed; it is changeable only by altering the way devices are electrically
interconnected.

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In contrast, programmable control is based on the basic logic functions, which are
programmable and easily changed. These functions (AND, OR, NOT) are used either singly
or in combinations to form instructions that will determine if a device is to be switched on or
off. The form in which these instructions are implemented to convey commands to the PLC is
called the language. The most common PLC language is ladder logic. Figure 4-23 shows a
typical ladder logic program for the motor start/stop circuit. The instructions used are the
relay equivalent of normally open (NO) and normally closed (NC) contacts and coils.
PLC contact symbolism is a simple way of expressing the control logic in terms of symbols.
These symbols are basically the same as those used for representing hardwired relay control
circuits. A rung is the contact symbolism required to control an output. Some PLCs allow a
rung to have multiple outputs while others allow only one output per rung.
Because the PLC uses ladder logic diagrams, the conversion from any existing relay logic to
programmed logic is simplified. Each rung is a combination of input conditions (symbols)
connected from left to right, with the symbol that represents the output at the far right. The
symbols that represent the inputs are connected in series, parallel, or some combination of the
two to obtain the desired logic. The following group of examples illustrates the relationship
between the relay ladder schematic, the ladder logic program, and the equivalent logic gate
circuit.

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PLC ladder programming

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A very commonly used method of programming PLCs is based on the use of ladder diagrams.
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Writing a program is then equivalent to drawing a switching circuit. The ladder diagram
consists of two vertical lines representing the power rails. Circuits are connected as horizontal
lines,i.e. the rungs of the ladder, between these two verticals.
In drawing a ladder diagram, certain conventions are adopted:
1 The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails between which circuits are
connected. The power flow is taken to be from the left-hand vertical across a rung.
2 Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control process.
3 A ladder diagram is read from left to right and from top to bottom, Figure 5.3 showing the
scanning motion employed by the PLC. The top rung is read from left to right. Then the
second rung down is read from left to right and so on. When the PLC is in its run mode, it
goes through the entire ladder program to the end, the end rung of the program being clearly
denoted, and then promptly resumes at the start. This procedure of going through all the
rungs of the program is termed a cycle. The end rung might be indicated by a block with the
word END or RET for return, since the program promptly returns to its beginning.
4 Each rung must start with an input or inputs and must end with at least one output. The term
input is used for a control action, such as closing the contacts of a switch, used as an input to
the PLC. The term output is used for a device connected to the output of a PLC,e.g. a motor.

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5 Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition. Thus a switch which is normally
open until some object closes it, is shown as open on the ladder diagram. A switch that is
normally closed is shown closed.
6 A particular device can appear in more than one rung of a ladder. For example, we might

used to label the device in each situation.

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have a relay which switches on one or more devices. The same letters and/or numbers are
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the PLC manufacturer. This is the address of the input or output in the memory of the PLC.
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NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC) Machine Tools.
Introduction:Numerical Control (NC) refers to the method of controlling the manufacturing
operation by means of directly inserted coded numerical instructions into the machine tool. It
is important to realize that NC is not a machining method, rather, it is a concept of machine
control.Although the most popular applications of NC are in machining, NC can be applied to
many other operations, including welding, sheet metalworking, riveting, etc.
History:The invention of numerical control has been due to the pioneering works of John T.
Parsons in the year 1940, when he tried to generate a curve automatically by milling cutters
by providing coordinate motions. In the late 1940s Parsons conceived the method of using
punched cards containing coordinate position system to control a machine tool. The machine
directed to move in small increments and generate the desired finish. In the year, 1948,
Parons demonstrated this concept to the US Air Force, who sponsored the series of project at
laboratories of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After lots of research MIT was
able to demonstrate first NC prototype in the year 1952 and in the next year they were able to
prove the potential applications of the NC.

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Concept:
PRINCIPLE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL
“a system in which actions are controlled by direct insertion of numerical data at some point.
The system must automatically interpret this data.”
Numerical control, popularly known as the NC is very commonly used in the machine tools.
Numerical control is defined as the form of programmable automation, in which the process
is controlled by the number, letters, and symbols. In case of the machine tools this
programmable automation is used for the operation of the machines.
In numerical control method the numbers form the basic program instructions for different
types of jobs; hence the name numerical control is given to this type of programming. When
the type of job changes, the program instructions of the job also change. It is easier to write
the new instructions for each job, hence NC provides lots of flexibility in its use.

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The NC technology can be applied to wide variety of operations like drafting, assembly,
inspection, sheet metal working, etc. But it is more prominently used for various metal
machining processes like turning, drilling, milling, shaping etc. Due to NC all the machining
operations can be performed at the fast rate resulting in bulk manufacturing becoming quite
cheaper.

Components of the Numerical Control System:

There are three important components of the numerical control or NC
system. These are:
1) Program of instructions
2) Controller unit, also called as the machine control unit (MCU) and
3) Machine tool
All these have been shown in the figure below and also described in the
subsequent sections.
CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEMS:
The classification of NC machine tool systems can be done in four ways:

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1. According to the type of machine: Point-to-point versus contouring (continuous path)
2. According to the structure of the controller: Hardware-based NC versus CNC
3. According to the programming method: incremental versus absolute
4. According to the type of control loops: Open-loop versus closed-loop
1. Point-to-Point and Contouring: Point to Point positioning:
In PTP, the objective of the machine tool control system is to move the cutting tool to a
predefined location. The speed or path by which this movement is accomplished is not
important in point to point NC. Once the tool reaches the desired location, the machining
operation is performed at that position. NC drill presses are a good example of PTP systems.
The spindle must first be positioned at a particular location on the work piece. This is done
under PTP control. Then the drilling of the hole is performed at the location, and so forth.
Since no cutting is performed between holes, there is no need for controlling the relative
motion of the tool and work piece between hole locations. Figure 1 illustrates the point to
point type of control. Point-to point (PTP) is also sometimes called a positioning system.
Positioning systems are the simplest machine tool control systems and are therefore the least
expensive of the three types. However, for certain process, such as drilling operations and
spot welding. PTP is perfectly suited to the task and any higher level of control would be
unnecessary.

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Contouring systems (Continuous path systems)
Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the cutter while
cutting operation is taking place. These machine tools include milling, routing machines etc.
and are known as contouring machines as shown in figure and the controls required for their
control are known as contouring control.
Contouring machines can also be used as point-to-point machines, but it will be
uneconomical to use them unless the work piece also requires having a contouring operation
to be performed on it. These machines require simultaneous control of axes. In contouring
machines, relative positions of the work piece and the tool should be continuously controlled.
The control system must be able to accept information regarding velocities and positions of
the machines slides. Feed rates should be programmed.

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Incremental and Absolute systems
CNC systems are further divided into incremental and absolute systems (Figure 8). In
incremental mode, the distance is measured from one point to the next. For example, if you
want to drill five holes at different locations, the x-position commands are x + 500, + 200, +
600, - 300, -700, -300. An absolute system is one in which all the moving commands are
referred from a reference point (zero point or origin) . For the above case, the x-position
commands are x 500,700, 1300, 1000, 300, 0. (Figure 8) . Both systems are incorporated in

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most CNC systems. For an inexperienced operator, it is wise to use incremental mode.
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The absolute system has two significant advantages over the incremental system :

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1,Interruptions caused by, for example, tool breakage (or tool change, or checking the parts),
would not affect the position at the interruption .
If a tool is to be replaced at some stage, the operator manually moves the table, exchanges the
tool, and has to return the table to the beginning of the segment in which the interruption has
occurred . In the absolute mode, the tool is automatically returned to the position . In
incremental mode, it is almost impossible to bring it precisely to that location unless you
repeat the part program
2. Easy change of dimensional data
The incremental mode has two advantages over the absolute mode.
1. Inspection of the program is easier because the sum of position commands for eachaxis
must be zero. A nonzero sum indicates an error. Such an inspection is impossible with the
absolute system.
2. Mirror image programming (for example, symmetrical geometry of the parts) is simple by
changing the signs of the position commands.
Open Loop System
In an open loop system the machine slides are displaced according to the information loaded
from the part program into the control system. Hence there is 14 CNC Machines no
measurement of slide position and no feedback signals for comparison with the input signal.

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The correct movement of slide entirely depends upon the ability of the drive systems to move
the slide through the required exact distance. The most common method of driving the lead
screw is by a stepper motor. The stepper motors are the simplest way for converting detail
electrical signals into proportional movement. As there is no check on the slide position, the
system accuracy depends upon the motors ability to step through the exact number of steps
provided at the input as shown in fig.

Closed Loop System

A closed loop system is sends back a signal to the control unit from a measuring device called
as transducer. The transducer is attached to the slide ways. The signal indicates the actual
movement and position of the slides. The control unit continues to adjust the position of the
slide until it arrives it’s destination, this system has feedback. Although more costly and
complex than open loop system, these system gives more accurate positioning. For this type
of system, servomotors are used.

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Control of Contouring Systems

In contouring systems the tool is cutting while the machine axes are moving. The contour of
the part is determined by the ratio between the velocities, along the two axes. The control in
contouring systems operates in closed loop. Therefore, a contouring system uses a cascade
control structure involving an inner velocity loop and an outer position loop for each feed
axis improved dynamic response. In such systems the interpolator generate reference signals
(in form of a sequence pulses or position words) for each axis of motion, in a coordinated
manner so that a desired contour is generated. Typical cascade control structure of contouring
systems is shown in Fig. 24.9. It uses an inner velocity feedback loops incorporating a
tachometer usually mounted directly on the motor shaft and an outer position feedback loop
which is capable of measuring incremental (such as from an incremental encoder) or absolute
angular position of the leadscrew shaft (such as a resolver or inductosyn).

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In encoder-based systems each pulse indicates a motion of 1 BLU of axis
travel. Therefore, the
number of pulses over a period represents incremental change in position
over the period and the encoder pulse frequency is proportional to the
axis velocity. In such a system, fed from a
reference pulse interpolator the comparison is done by an up-down
counter which is fed by two
sequences of pulses: reference pulses from the interpolator and feedback
pulses generated by the encoder. The counter produces a number
representing the instantaneous position error in pulse units. This number

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can be converted by the DAC and fed to an analog position control

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system. A typical electronic PLC function module board for CNC drives is
described below.

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