Module 3

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM):-Mechanism of metal

removal, dielectric fluid, spark generation, recast layer and
3
attributes of process characteristics on MRR, accuracy, HAZ
etc, Wire EDM, applications and accessories.
Ultrasonic Machining (USM):-mechanics of cutting,
III effects of parameters on amplitude, frequency of vibration,
2
grain diameter, slurry, tool material attributes and hardness
of work material, applications.
Electro chemical machining (ECM):- Mechanism of metal
removal attributes of process characteristics on MRR, 1
accuracy, surface roughness etc, application and limitations.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

1
Page

Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET 2014

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Modern machining methods are also named as non-conventional machining methods. Non
traditional machining processes, are employed where traditional machining processes are not
feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons as outlined. The complexity of the
job profile, hard materials, need for smooth surface finish, closer dimensional tolerance and
higher accuracy has led to the unconventional machining processes more important
Characteristics of unconventional process
1. Very hard and brittle can be machined
2. Flexible or slender work piece be machined, due to absence of physical contact of
tool and work (less cutting force)
3. Complex part geometries that can be produced
4. Provide very good quality of surface finish and dimensional accuracy
5. Stress free components are possible
6. Less tool wear due the absence of tool contact
Disadvantages of non-conventional machining:
1) High cost
2) complex set-up
3) skilled operator required
Conventional machining involves the direct contact of tool and work -piece, whereas
unconventional machining does not require the direct contact of tool and work piece.
Conventional machining has many disadvantages like tool wear which are not present in non-
conventional machining.
S . I N
T U N OTE
Machining performance characteristics of non- conventional process
The machining characteristics of non-conventional processes can be analyzed with respect to:
K
(i) Metal removal rate
(ii) Tool wear rate
(iii) Surface finish and Tolerance obtained
(iv) Depth of surface damage
(v) Power required for machining
Classification of non-conventional machining processes
Classification based on principle of working and energy is described below. The suitability of
application of any of the processes is dependent upon various performance factors.
2
Page

Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET 2014

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

The process capabilities of non-conventional manufacturing processes have been compared in
table.
 The metal removal rates by ECM and PAM are respectively that of conventional
whereas others are only small fractions of it.
 Power requirement of ECM and PAM is also very high
 ECM has very low tool wear rate
 The capital cost of ECM is very high whereas capital costs for AJM and PAM are
comparatively low.
 EDM has got higher tooling cost than other machining processes.
 The metal removal efficiency is very high for EBM and LBM than for other
processes.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

3
Page

Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET 2014

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Electric discharge machining (EDM)
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) is an electro-thermal non-traditional machining process,
where electrical energy is used to generate electrical spark and material removal mainly
occurs due to thermal energy of the spark. EDM is mainly used to machine difficult-to-
machine materials and high strength temperature resistant alloys. EDM can be used to
machine difficult geometries in small batches or even on job-shop basis. Work material to be
machined by EDM has to be electrically conductive.

In the EDM process an electric spark is used to cut the work piece, which takes the shape
opposite to that of the cutting tool or electrode. The electrode and the work piece are both
submerged in a dielectric fluid.A voltage difference is applied between work and tool
generating a spark.The heat from the spark melts tiny bit of metal from the work piece and

S . I N
thus machining is taking place. The dielectric is continuously pumped between the work

T U OTE
piece and tool carries away the removed material. The dielectric is then filtered and circulated
N
back. The machined surface is having the shape of tool.

K
It is also known as spark erosion machining or spark machining. The electrode (tool) and the
work material are placed very close to each other, separated by a non-conducting liquid
called a dielectric (kerosene). Servo mechanism is provided to make the tool feed as the
machining is taking place to keep the gap constant.

 Voltage 50 to 450 V (DC)

 Electrode gap = 0.01 to 0.5 mm
 MRR: 2 to 400 mm3/min.
4


Page

Ra varies from 0.05 – 12.5 μm

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Material removal mechanism
EDM is a thermal process which makes use of spark discharges to erode the material from
work piece surface. The melting and vaporization of work piece over a localized area under
the spark is taking place. The fine chips of material removed from the work piece gets
flushed away by the continuous flowing di-electric fluid.
 An intense electric field develops in the gap between electrode and work piece in an
dielectric fluid.
 When the voltage increases, the dielectric is ionized to form a spark channel and a
spark is generated and melting and vaporization of work piece over a localized area under
the spark is taking place
Material removal rate calculation
A number of sparks are produced between the electrodes and every spark removes material
and a crater is formed. The crater under a single spark has been shown below. The molten
crater can be assumed to be hemispherical in nature with a radius “r” which forms due to a
single pulse or spark. Hence material removal in a single spark can be expressed as
2
Vc   r 3
3
Vc  volume of material re moved
r  radius of crater

S . I N
Now material removal rate is the ratio of material removed in a single spark to cycle time.

OTE
Vc Vc
MRR  
t on  t off
t

K T U N

The energy content of a single spark is given as

E  VIton
V  voltage
I  current
t  on time
Now it can be assumed that material removal in a single spark would be proportional to the spark
energy.
Vc  E
5
Page

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Dielectric Solution
Important properties of dielectric are its dielectric strength, viscosity, thermal conductivity
and thermal capacity. Dielectric strength characterizes the fluid’s ability to maintain high
resistivity before spark discharge and the ability to recover rapidly after the discharge.
Generally kerosene and deionised water is used as dielectric fluid in EDM.
The functions of a dielectric fluid in EDM process
• It acts as an insulating medium
• To act as a coolant to quench the spark and to cool the tool and work piece.
• To carry away the metal particles and to maintain the gap for smooth operation.
Mineral oils (kerosene) are commonly used as the oils exhibiting high dielectric strength and
a low viscosity. Water based dielectrics are used almost extensively for wire EDM
operations.
Properties of dielectric fluid
1. Low viscosity to ensure efficient flushing
2. High flash point
3. Non-toxic
4. Non-corrosive
5. High latent heat
6. Suitable dielectric strength
Advantages or process capability of EDM

S . I N
OTE
1. Can machine hard material economically with close tolerance.

N
2. High degree of dimensional accuracy, so recommended for tool and die making.

T U
3. Complicated geometries can be produced which are very difficult otherwise.
K
4. Highly delicate sections and weak materials can be processed –absence of force
5. Fine holes can be drilled easily and accurately.
6. A good surface finish can be obtained.
Disadvantages and Limitations of EDM Process
1. Electrically non-conducting materials cannot be processed by EDM.
2. EDM process is not capable to produce sharp corners.
3. The slow rate of material removal.
4. Specific power consumption is very high.
5. Excessive Tool wear affects dimensional accuracy
6. Cannot be used on large sized work pieces, constrained by the size of set up.
Application of Electric Discharge Machining
1. EDM is widely used for making dies and molds (where accuracy and complex
cavities are required -sharp internal corners, narrow slots, deep ribs and other intricate
shapes are involved).
2. Cutting very small and accurate dimension holes, e.g. in injection nozzles for engines
3. Shaping carbide tool, die tool steel, refractory materials etc -highly economical for
6

machining of very hard material

Page

4. Very well suited for making fragile parts which cannot take the stress of machining

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Pulse generator/ Spark generator
The pulsed power supply is produced by the following methods
1. Resistance-capacitance type (RC type) Relaxation generator
2. Rotary impulse type generator
3. Electronic pulse generator
Resistance-capacitance type (RC type) Relaxation generator
In RC type generator, the capacitor is charged from a DC source. As long as the voltage in
the capacitor is not reaching the breakdown voltage of the dielectric medium under the
prevailing machining condition, capacitor would continue to charge. Once the breakdown
voltage is reached the capacitor would start discharging and a spark would be established
between the tool and work piece leading to machining. Such discharging would continue as
long as the spark can be sustained. Once the voltage becomes too low to sustain the spark, the
charging of the capacitor would continue. Fig. shows the working of RC type EDM
relaxation.

S . I N
Rotary pulse type generator

T U N OTE
K
In pulse generator, solid-state devices are used instead of capacitor and resistance. In place of
capacitor, solid state switching devices, like transistors, are used. During operation, the
capacitor” C” is charged through the diode on half cycle. On the following half cycle, the
sum of the voltage from the generator and charged capacitor is applied to the gap.

Electronic pulse generator

Present day EDM machines adopt transistorised pulse circuits. They can give high MRR with
better surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Switching is done in this circuit by an
oscillator at a predetermined frequency without the capacitors. Power transistor triodes as
switching devices allow ON or OFF controls which provides unidirectional square pulses to
this electrode.
7
Page

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Process parameters of EDM
Many processes variables influence the performance like material removal rate, surface finish
and tool wear etc. Few controllable main input variables are the following:
1. Current – I (current passing in the circuit)
2. Pulse on time –- ton (duration of spark during a cycle)
3. Pulse off time - toff (duration of absence of spark during a cycle)
4. Open circuit voltage – V
5. The gap between the work piece and the tool – spark gap

Voltage and current variation during EDM process

Heat Affected Zone
Head affected zone is the area of the base material which has its properties altered by heat
intensive machining during electric discharge. In EDM, with the temperature of the
discharges reaching 8000 to 12,000°C, metallurgical changes occur in the surface layer of the
work piece. The work piece material melted by the discharge is not fully expelled into the

. I N
dielectric. If molten material from the work piece is not flushed out quickly, it will solidify
S
OTE
and harden due to the cooling effect of the dielectric and gets adhered to the machined

K T U N
surface. The HAZ and recast layers could be 0.1 to 0.25 mm thick. It is extremely hard,
brittle and porous and may contain micro cracks.
There are two thermally affected sub-layers of material: the recast layer or white layer and
the heat affected zone.
1. Re-cast or “white layer”: This is the material that has melted and rapidly solidified
(rapidly quenched by the dielectric fluid) and is not flushed away by the electric fluid,
subsequently producing an extremely brittle surface. This layer is known as white
layer which has poor machinability. The recast layer is extremely hard and brittle; the
surface is porous and may contain micro cracks which is not a good characteristic of a
machined surface.
2. Heat-affected zone (HAZ), which has only been heated, not melted. The heat
affected zone retains the metallurgical structure of the parent material as the
temperature absorbed is not to the level to change the structure. Therefore, it is to be
seen how this heat affected zone can be minimized during this process.
8
Page

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Effect of various parameters on MRR, accuracy and HAZ
MRR is basically a function of the current and the melting point of the work-piece material.
The material removal rate depends on the following factors:
1. Peak amperage or intensity of the spark
2. Length of the ON time
3. Voltage across the gap
4. Duty cycle: percentage of on-time relative to total cycle time
5. Gap distance: slower is the material removal rate.
6. Pulse off time - decreases the MRR but reduces the HAZ and improves the accuracy

The factors that increases the MRR, increases the roughness and reduces the accuracy
(over cut/taper)
Surface quality and accuracy
S . I N
OTE
Each discharge, due to high energy concentration, removes from the work piece surface a

K T U N
small quantity of material in form of molten metal drops and vapours forming crater on the
surface. Crater geometry mainly depends on electric pulse power and it’s duration.
Surface roughness in EDM would increase with increase in spark energy and surface finish
can be improved by decreasing working voltage, working current and pulse on time.
Normally a tolerance value of ± 0.05 mm can be achieved in EDM.
Accuracy (taper and over cut)
Though there is a possibility of taper cut and overcut in EDM, they can be controlled and
compensated. In EDM, the spark occurs between the two nearest point on the tool and work
piece. Thus machining may occur on the side surface as well leading to overcut and taper cut.
Taper cut can be prevented by suitable insulation of the tool. Overcut cannot be prevented as
it is inherent to the EDM process. But the tool design can be done in such a way so that same
gets compensated.

Increase of peak current, pulse on time, voltage increases the following

1. Surface roughness
2. Overcut and taperness –in accuracy
9
Page

3. Increases HAZ

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Wire cut electric discharge machining (WEDM)
This is a special type of electric discharge machining that uses a small diameter wire as a
cutting tool. Process details of WEDM are almost like EDM with slight difference. In this
process, a thin metallic wire is fed on-to the work piece, which is submerged in a tank of
dielectric fluid such as deionized water. During the cutting process, the wire is continuously
advanced between a supply spool and wire collector. Material of wire can be brass, copper,
tungsten etc. Normally, wire diameter ranges from 0.076 to 0.30 mm depending upon the
width of kerf. (notice the meaning of kerf from the figure). Like EDM process dielectric fluid
is continuously sprayed to the machining zone.

Advantages
1. Accuracy and precision of dimensions are of very good quality.
2. Does not impose any force to work piece so used for very delicate and thin work
3. Hardness and toughness of work piece do not create problems in machining operation

. I N
4. Efficient Production Capabilities - many parts can be more economically produced
S
OTE
with wire EDM, rather than with conventional machining. (gears, cams and dies etc.)

T U N
Disadvantages and Limitations of WEDM
K
This process is that only electrically conducting materials can be machined. This
process is costly so recommended for use specifically at limited operations.
Application of wire EDM
1. Wire cut EDM is widely used to machine various molds, such as punch die, squeezing
die and powder metallurgy mold etc.
2. To mechanical parts machining, to machine special material which is not easy to
processed by conventional machines, special gear, forming cutting tools etc
3. It can also cut various silicon Steel Sheet, semi-conductive material or precious metal.

EDM Electrode
Electrode material should be such that it would not undergo much tool wear when it is
impinged by positive ions. Copper, brass and graphite are the some of the commonly used
EDM electrodes.
Thus the basic characteristics of electrode materials are:
1. High electrical conductivity – electrons are cold emitted more easily
2. High thermal conductivity –
3. Higher density –
10

4. High melting point

5. Easy manufacturability
Page

*******************************

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Electrochemical machining (ECM)
In ECM, a dc voltage (10-25 V) is applied across the gap between a pre-shaped cathode tool
and an anode work piece. The work piece is dissolved by an electrochemical reaction to the
shape of the tool. This process works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.
Tool is made cathode and kept near the work-piece (anode) and current is passed through the
circuit. The electrolyte is continuously flowing through a hole in the tool to the gap between
the work piece and the tool surfaces. Material of work piece is removed by anodic
dissolution. At the anodic work piece surface, metal is dissolved into metallic ions by the
reaction, and thus the tool shape is copied into the work piece. In ECM, electrolyte is so
chosen that there is no deposition on tool and shape of tool remains unchanged. The
machined surface takes the replica of tool shape

S . I N
T U N OTE
K
Dissolution reaction of iron (work material) in sodium chloride (NaCl) electrolyte
The result of electrolytic dissociation
and
Negatively charged anions: (OH)- and Cl- towards to anode,
Positively charged cations: H+ and Na+ towards to cathode.
At the anode:
Fe  Fe    2e 
Fe    2Cl   FeCl 2
Fe    2(OH )   Fe(OH ) 2
At the cathode, the reaction generates hydrogen gas
2 H   2e   H 2
The outcome of these electrochemical reactions is that the iron ions combine with other ions
to precipitate out as iron hydroxide Fe (OH)2and Fe Cl2 as sludge.
11
Page

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Electrolyte
Water is used as base of electrolyte in ECM. Normally water soluble NaCl and NaNO 3 are
used as electrolyte. Electrolyte facilitates are carrier of dissolved work piece material. It is
recycled by a pump after filtration.

The main functions of the electrolytes in ECM are to

1. Create conditions for anodic dissolution of work piece material
2. Remove the debris of the electrochemical reactions from the gap
3. Carry away the heat generated by the machining process
Properties of electrolyte
1. Ensure a uniform and high-speed anodic dissolution
2. Not deposit on the cathode surface, so that the cathode shape remains unchanged
3. Have a high electrical conductivity and low viscosity to reduce heat generation and to

S . I N
ensure good flow conditions in the extremely narrow inter-electrode gap

OTE
4. Be safe, non-toxic, low cost and less erosive to the machine body

K T U N
5. Have small variation in its conductivity and viscosity due to temperature rise
Process parameters and performance factors
 Supply voltage = 10 to 20V,
 Current (I) = 50 to 5000 A.
 Electrode gap is typically 0.1 to 0.2 mm.
 Tool material - Cu, Brass, Steel
 Tool feed rate,
 Electrolyte composition and temperature etc
 MRR is about 1600mm3/min per 1000 A
 Surface finishes 0.1 to 0.5 microns using ECM
 Specific power consumption 7W/mm3/min
Advantages of ECM Process or process capabilities
1. Machining of hard and brittle material is possible with good surface finish
2. Good for complicated shapes.
3. There is almost negligible tool wear so cost of tool making is one time
4. No direct contact between tool and work and absence of force or heat, so no scope of
mechanical and thermal residual stresses in the work-piece.
12

5. Very good surface finish can be obtained.

6. MRR is not dependent on material hardness.
Page

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Disadvantages/Limitations of ECM
1. Electrically non-conducting materials cannot be machined.
2. Tool and work piece material should be chemically stable with the electrolyte
3. Accurate feed rate of tool is required to be maintained.
4. High cost and difficult in dimensional control
5. Inability to machine sharp interior edges and corners
6. Large power consumption and related problems
Applications of ECM Process
1. Aerospace industries: Used to machine dies, turbine and compressor blades
2. Manufacture of general machine parts: thin wall mechanical slotting, chain pinions,
driving joints, pump glands and impellers, connecting rod, hydraulic spools, gear wheels
3. Facing and turning complex 3D surfaces
4. Die sinking, particularly deep narrow slots and holes
5. ECM is used for deburring of parts like gears.
Material removal mechanism
1. In ECM, material removal takes place due to atomic dissolution of work material.
Electrochemical dissolution is governed by Faraday’s laws.
2. Material is depleted (anodic dissolution) from anode work piece (positive pole) and
transported to a cathode tool (negative pole) in an electrolyte bath
3. Electrolyte flows rapidly between the two poles to carry off depleted material, so it
does not plated onto cathode tool
S . I N
OTE
Material removal rate (MRR) calculation in ECM process

K T U N
Electrochemical dissolution is governed by Faraday’s laws
The first law states that the amount of electrochemical dissolution or deposition is
proportional to amount of charge passed through the electrochemical cell
m  I *t
where m = mass of material dissolved, or deposited
I = current intensity
t=time
The second law states that the amount of material deposited or dissolved further depends
directly on atomic weight and inverse of valency of material.
Combining both laws, we get
N
m  I *t *
n
1 N
MRR  * I *t *
96500 n*d
1
where  electroche mical cons tan t
96500
N  atomic weight
n  valency
t  time
13

d  density of material
Page

MRR  volume of material removed

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Influence of ECM process parameters on MRR, accuracy and surface finish
MRR, surface finish and geometric accuracy of the components machined by ECM depends
on parameters related to electrolyte (flow rate, composition, concentration, temperature),
current density, voltage, properties of work piece feed rate of tool etc.
The rate of material removal in ECM is governed by Faraday’s law and is a function of
current density. By increase in current density, the material removal rate is also increases.
Variables that affect the MRR are:
1. Voltage- High voltage results in higher MRR
2. Feed rate - High feed rate results in higher MRR
3. Electrolyte conductivity - Low concentration and low temperature results in lower MRR
4. Electrolyte composition - directly influences conductivity, MRR and surface quality
5. Electrolyte flow - The velocity and the electrolyte flow improves MRR
6. Work piece material
Surface roughness and tolerance
1. Low voltage and low machining gap results in a better surface finish and finer
tolerance control
2. Increased current leads to electrolyte heating – low temperature of the electrolyte is
conducive for a better surface finish and tolerances
3. High feed rates improves the surface finish and tolerance control
4. Electrolyte composition - directly improves surface characteristics

S . I N
OTE
Heat affected zone (HAZ)

N
Since it is a chemical process where generation of heat is very less, there is no heat affected

T U
zone comparing with other non-traditional machining process.
K

14
Page

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Tool Feed Mechanism
Servo motor is used to feed the tool to the machining zone. It is necessary to maintain a
constant gap between the work piece and tool so tool feed rate is kept accordingly while
machining.
Differences between EDM and ECM
ECM EDM
Medium Electrolyte Dielectric
Removal mechanism Removal Chemical action removal by melting
Tool wear No tool wears tool wear
Removal rate High MRR Low MRR
Dimensional accuracy Low High
Surface finish High Low
HAZ Less High

Similarities between EDM and ECM (draw both figures also)

 The tool and work piece are separated by a very small gap, i.e. no contact in between
 The tool and material must be conductors of electricity.
 A fluid is used as a medium between the tool and the work
 The tool is fed continuously towards the work piece to maintain a constant gap
 Needs high capital investment and power

S . I N
T U N OTE
*************************

15
Page

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Ultrasonic machining (USM)
In Ultrasonic Machining, the tip of the tool vibrates at low amplitude and at high frequency in
an abrasive slurry. This vibration transmits a high velocity to fine abrasive grains between
tool and the surface of the work piece. Material removed by erosion with these abrasive
particles.

In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25

kHz) with an amplitude of around 15 – 50 μm over the work piece. Generally, the tool is
pressed downward with a feed force, F. Between the tool and work piece, the machining zone
is flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of water based slurry. As the tool
vibrates over the work piece, the abrasive particles act as the indenters and indent both the
work material and the tool. The abrasive particles as they indent the work piece, material get

I N
removed. USM is mainly used for machining brittle materials {which are poor conductors of

S .
OTE
electricity and thus cannot be processed by Electrochemical and Electro-discharge

K T U N
machining. The electrode gap normally varies from 0.005 mm to 0.50 mm

The typical elements of an USM are

 Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool during machining
 The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration
 The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the vibration to the required
amplitude of 15 – 50 μm and accommodates the tool at its tip.
16

 Slurry delivery and return system

Page

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Advantages of USM
1. Work piece after machining is free from any residual stress as no force or heat is
subject to it during the machining process.
2. Extremely hard and brittle materials can be machined;
3. Very good dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be obtained.
4. Operational cost is low.
5. The process is environmental friendly as it is noiseless, no chemical and heating.
Disadvantages of USM
1. Its metal removal rate (MRR) is very low and it cannot be used for large
machining
2. Its initial setup cost and cost of tool is very high
3. Not recommended for soft and ductile material due to their ductility.
4. Power consumption is quite high.
5. Slurry may have to be replaced frequently.
Applications
1. Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass, ceramics,
carbides etc. Used for grinding Quartz, Glass, ceramics
2. USM can be used to cut industrial diamonds
3. USM enables a dentist to drill a hole of any shape on teeth without any pain
4. Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface impressions.

S . I N
5. Used in machining of dies for wire drawing, punching and blanking operations

OTE
6. Cutting holes with curved or spiral centre lines and cutting threads in glass etc

T
Process capability of USM
K U N
1. Can machine the work pieces harder than 40 HRC to 60 HRC like carbides, ceramics,
tungsten glass that cannot be machined by conventional methods. USM is not
applicable to soft and ductile materials such as copper, lead, ductile steel and plastics,
which absorb energy by deformation.
2. Tolerance range: 7 to 25 microns.
3. Holes up to 76 microns have been drilled. Hole depths up to 51 mm have been
achieved easily. Hole depth of 152 mm deep is achieved by special flushing
techniques.
4. Aspect ratio 40: 1 has been achieved.
5. Linear material removal rate: –0.025 to 25 mm/min.
6. Surface finish: – 0.25 micron to 0.75 micron.
7. Non-directional surface texture is possible compared to conventional grinding.
8. Radial overcut may be as low as 1.5 to 4 times the mean, abrasive grain size.
Following are the USM process criteria
1. Material removal rate
2. Geometrical accuracy
3. surface finish
17

4. Out of roundness
Page

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Mechanism of material removal
Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of the hard abrasive grits on the
brittle work material. As the tool vibrates, it leads to indentation of the abrasive grits
ultimately lead to brittle fracture of the work material under each individual interaction site
between the abrasive grits and the work piece.
The various mechanisms of material removal process have been developed by a number of
researchers. The reasons for material removal in an USM process are believed to be:
1. Mechanical abrasion: Occurs due to the hammering effect of abrasive particles on
work piece through the tool.
2. Impact: The freely moving particles impact with a certain velocity on the work piece
resulting in micro chipping.
3. Erosion: Due to cavitation effect of the abrasive slurry, erosion of the work occurs.
4. Chemical: Due to fluid employed, chemical effect can come into consideration.
Material removal due to throwing and hammering is significant and MR due to cavitation and
chemical erosion can be ignored.
 If the size of the particle is small and gap between the tool and work is large, then
particle will be thrown by tool to hit the work piece.
 If the size of the particle is large and gap between tool and work is small, then particle
is hammered over the work surface.
Process Parameters and their Effects

. I N
The main process parameters which govern the ultrasonic machining process is as follows
S
OTE
1. Amplitude of vibration (15 to 50 microns)

K T U N
2. Frequency of vibration (19 to 25 kHz).
3. Feed force (F) related to tool dimensions
4. Abrasive size
5. Abrasive material
Al203, SiC, B4C, Boron silicarbide, Diamond.
6. Contact area of the tool
7. Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry
8. Tool
a. Material of tool
b. Shape
c. Amplitude of vibration
d. Frequency of vibration
e. Strength developed in tool
9. Work material
a. Material
b. Impact strength
c. Surface fatigue strength
10. Slurry
a. Abrasive – concentration
18

b. Liquid – Chemical property, viscosity, flow rate

Page

c. Density

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Material removal rate is inversely proportional to the cutting area of the tool. Tool vibrations
also affect the removal rate. The type of abrasive, its size and concentration also directly
affect the MRR
1. MRR should also rise proportionately with the mean grain diameter
2. With increase in the frequency of the tool, the MRR increase proportionally.
3. With increase in amplitude, the MRR should increase proportionally
4. MRR increases with slurry concentration.
5. The concentration of the abrasives directly controls the number of grains producing
impact per cycle and increases the MRR
6. MRR drops as viscosity increases.
7. The ratio of work piece hardness and tool hardness affects the MRR quite
significantly

S . I N
T U N OTE
K
Tool/ electrodes in EDM
The geometry which is to be machined into the work piece decides the shape and size of the
tool. The electrode is conductor, usually copper, graphite, tungsten and brass etc. Tool is
given negative polarity. The tool material selected should be easy to machine, high wear
resistant. Tool is made slightly under size for inside machining and oversized for outside
machining.
1. High electrical conductivity
2. High thermal conductivity –the local temperature rise would be less
3. High melting point – high melting point leads to less tool wear
4. Easy manufacturability
5. Less wear rate
Tool Feed Mechanism
In case of EDM, feeding the tool means controlling gap between work piece and the tool.
This gap is maintained and controlled with the help of servo mechanism. The electrode gap
19

normally varies from 0.005 mm to 0.50 mm. Since tool wear is expected, tool wear rate is
Page

also a performance parameter.

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

High power sine wave generator
This unit converts low frequency (60 Hz) electrical power to high frequency (20kHz)
electrical power.
Transducer
The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer. Essentially transducer converts
electrical energy to mechanical vibration. The transducer for USM works on the following
principle
 Piezoelectric effect
 Magnetostrictive effect
 Electrostrictive effect
Piezo electric transducer: These transducers generate a small electric current when they are
compressed. Also, when the electric current is passed though crystal it expands. When the
current is removed, crystal attains its original size and shape. Piezo electric crystals have high
conversion efficiency of 95%.
Magneto-strictive transducer: is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes them to
change their shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization. These transducers are
made of nickel, nickel alloy sheets. The maximum change in length can be achieved is about
25 microns.
Tool holder or Horn or concentrator

S . I N
The tool holder holds and connects the tool to the transducer. The concentrator is usually a

OTE
cylindrically shaped metal rod which amplifies and concentrates the vibration to the tool from

K T U N
the transducer. The device is necessary because the amplitudes provided by the transducers
themselves are insufficient for most practical applications of power ultrasound

Cutting Tool
Tool of USM vibrates with small amplitude at high frequency to vibrate abrasive slurry to cut
the work-piece material. The tool is attached to the arbor (tool holder) by brazing or
mechanical means. . The tool is made of relatively soft material.
Feed Mechanism
Tool is fed to the machining zone of work piece. The tool is shaped as same to the cavity of
20

be produced into the work piece. The tool is fed to the machining area. The feed rate is
Page

maintained equal to the rate of enlargement of the cavity to be produced.

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Calculation volume of material removed during USM process
The theory developed by M.C. Shaw is given below
The important assumptions made by M.C. Shaw are:
1. All the abrasive particles are identical and spherical in shape.
2. All impacts are identical.
3. The metal removal rate is proportional to number of particles and the number of
cycles per unit time.
Volume of the material removed is the volume of the hemispherical crater due the fracture per
grit per cycle.

A particle after hitting the work surface generates a crater of

h= depth of crater
r= radius of hemi-spherical crater of indentation
R= radius of grit

. I N
The volume of material (Vg) removed assuming hemi-spherical crater due to fracture cycle is

S
OTE
given by
1 4 
U N
Vg    r 3  since the volume of hemishere is half of sphere
2 3
K
T
r2  d h
r  dh

1 4 
3
Vg    ( d h ) 2
 where d= diameter of grit and h= indentation depth
2 3 
Thus, volume of work material removal rate (Q)
Q α Vg Z ν
where, V = volume of the work material removal per impact
Z = number of particles making impact per cycle
21

ν = frequency
Page

SSET Department of Mechanical Engineering

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in