International System of Units

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Cover of brochure The International System of Units.

The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French le Système
international d'unités[1]) is the modern form of the metric system and is generally a
system devised around the convenience of the number ten. It is the world's most widely
used system of measurement, both in everyday commerce and in science.[2][3]
The older metric system included several groups of units. The SI was developed in 1960
from the old metre-kilogram-second system, rather than the centimetre-gram-second
system, which, in turn, had a few variants. Because the SI is not static, units are created
and definitions are modified through international agreement among many nations as the
technology of measurement progresses, and as the precision of measurements improves.
The system is nearly universally employed, and most countries do not even maintain
official definitions of any other units[dubious – discuss]. Three principal exceptions are Burma
(Myanmar), Liberia, and the United States. The United Kingdom has officially adopted
the International System of Units but not with the intention of replacing customary
measures entirely.

Three nations have not officially adopted the International System of Units as their
primary or sole system of measurement: Liberia, Myanmar and the United States.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Realisation of units

• 2 History

o 2.1 Information technology unit prefixes

o 2.2 Future development

• 3 Units

• 4 SI writing style

o 4.1 Spelling variations

• 5 Conversion factors

• 6 Length, mass and temperature convergence

• 7 Cultural issues

o 7.1 Trade

• 8 See also

• 9 References

• 10 Further reading

• 11 External links

[edit] Realisation of units

It is important to distinguish between the definition of a unit and its realisation. The
definition of each base unit of the SI is carefully drawn up so that it is unique and
provides a sound theoretical basis upon which the most accurate and reproducible
measurements can be made. The realisation of the definition of a unit is the procedure by
which the definition may be used to establish the value and associated uncertainty of a
quantity of the same kind as the unit. A description of how the definitions of some
important units are realised in practice is given on the BIPM website.[4]
A coherent SI derived unit can be expressed in SI base units with no numerical factor
other than the number 1.[5] The coherent SI derived unit of resistance, the ohm, symbol
Ω, for example, is uniquely defined by the relation Ω = m2·kg·s−3·A−2,
which follows from the definition of the quantity electrical resistance. However, "any
method consistent with the laws of physics could be used to realise any SI unit."[6]
(p.111).

[edit] History
Main articles: Metre, Grave (mass), Kilogram, Second, Ampere, Kelvin, Mole (unit), and
Candela
The metric system was conceived by a group of scientists (among them, Antoine-Laurent
Lavoisier, who is known as the "father of modern chemistry") who had been
commissioned by Louis XVI of France to create a unified and rational system of
measures. After the French Revolution, the system was adopted by the new
government.[7] On August 1, 1793, the National Convention adopted the new decimal
"metre" with a provisional length as well as the other decimal units with preliminary
definitions and terms. On April 7, 1795 (Loi du 18 germinal, an III) the terms "gramme"
and "kilogramme" replaced the former terms "gravet" (correctly "milligrave") and
"grave". On December 10, 1799 (a month after Napoleon's coup d'état), the metric system
was definitively adopted in France.
The history of the metric system has seen a number of variations, whose use has spread
around the world, to replace many traditional measurement systems. At the end of World
War II a number of different systems of measurement were still in use throughout the
world. Some of these systems were metric-system variations, whereas others were based
on customary systems. It was recognised that additional steps were needed to promote a
worldwide measurement system. As a result the 9th General Conference on Weights and
Measures (CGPM), in 1948, asked the International Committee for Weights and
Measures (CIPM) to conduct an international study of the measurement needs of the
scientific, technical, and educational communities.
Based on the findings of this study, the 10th CGPM in 1954 decided that an international
system should be derived from six base units to provide for the measurement of
temperature and optical radiation in addition to mechanical and electromagnetic
quantities. The six base units that were recommended are the metre, kilogram, second,
ampere, degree Kelvin (later renamed the kelvin), and the candela. In 1960, the 11th
CGPM named the system the International System of Units, abbreviated SI from the
French name: Le Système international d'unités. The seventh base unit, the mole, was
added in 1971 by the 14th CGPM.

[edit] Information technology unit prefixes

Representing quantities in units of powers of two is common in the information
technology field, for example when referring to the amount of memory in a computer.
Because the SI prefixes represent powers of 10 they should not be used to represent
powers of 2. Lacking an alternative it was common to use SI prefixes for either, for
example 2 kB could mean either 2,000 bytes or 2,048 bytes. To alleviate the ambiguity
prefixes for binary multiples have been adopted by the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) for use in information technology. See IEC Standard binary prefixes.

[edit] Future development

ISO 31 contains recommendations for the use of the International System of Units; for
electrical applications, in addition, IEC 60027 has to be taken into account. As of 2008,
work is proceeding to integrate both standards into a joint standard Quantities and Units
in which the quantities and equations used with SI are to be referred as the International
System of Quantities (ISQ).[8]
A readable discussion of the present units and standards is found at Brian W. Petley
International Union of Pure and Applied Physics I.U.P.A.P.- 39 (2004).

[edit] Units
Main articles: SI base unit, SI derived unit, and SI prefix
The international system of units consists of a set of units together with a set of prefixes.
The units of SI can be divided into two subsets. There are seven base units: Each of these
base units represents, at least in principle, different kinds of physical quantities. From
these seven base units, several other units are derived. In addition to the SI units, there is
also a set of non-SI units accepted for use with SI which includes some commonly used
units such as the litre.

SI base units[9]

Name Symbol Quantity

metre m length

kilogram kg mass

second s time

ampere A electric current

kelvin K thermodynamic temperature

candela cd luminous intensity

mole mol amount of substance

A prefix may be added to a unit to produce a multiple of the original unit. All multiples
are integer powers of ten. For example, kilo- denotes a multiple of a thousand and milli-
denotes a multiple of a thousandth; hence there are one thousand millimetres to the metre
and one thousand metres to the kilometre. The prefixes are never combined: a millionth
of a kilogram is a milligram not a microkilogram.
 Standard prefixes for the SI units of measure

Multiples Name deca- hecto- kilo- mega- giga- tera- peta- exa- zetta- yotta-

Symbol da h k M G T P E Z Y

Factor 100 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021 1024

Subdivisions Name deci- centi- milli- micro- nano- pico- femto- atto- zepto- yocto-

Symbol d c m µ n p f a z y

Factor 100 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−6 10−9 10−12 10−15 10−18 10−21 10−24

[edit] SI writing style

• Symbols do not have an appended period/full stop (.).

• Symbols are written in upright (Roman) type (m for metres, s for seconds), so as
to differentiate from the italic type used for variables (m for mass, s for
displacement). By consensus of international standards bodies, this rule is applied
independent of the font used for surrounding text.[10]
• Symbols for units are written in lower case, except for symbols derived from the
name of a person. For example, the unit of pressure is named after Blaise Pascal,
so its symbol is written "Pa", whereas the unit itself is written "pascal". All
symbols of prefixes larger than 103 (kilo) are also uppercase.
o The one exception is the litre, whose original symbol "l" is unsuitably
similar to the numeral "1" or the uppercase letter "i" (depending on the
typeface used), at least in many English-speaking countries. The American
National Institute of Standards and Technology recommends that "L" be
used instead, a usage which is common in the US, Canada and Australia
(but not elsewhere). This has been accepted as an alternative by the CGPM
since 1979. The cursive ℓ is occasionally seen, especially in Japan and
Greece, but this is not currently recommended by any standards body. For
more information, see litre.
• The SI rule is that symbols of units are not pluralised, for example "25 kg" (not
 "25 kgs").[10]
o The American National Institute of Standards and Technology has defined
guidelines for American users of the SI.[11][12] These guidelines give
guidance on pluralising unit names: the plural is formed by using normal
English grammar rules, for example, "henries" is the plural of "henry".
The units lux, hertz, and siemens are exceptions from this rule: They
remain the same in singular and plural. Note that this rule applies only to
the full names of units, not to their symbols.
• A no-break space separates the number and the symbol; e.g., "2.21 kg",
"7.3×102 m2", "22 K".[13][14] This rule explicitly includes the percent sign.
Exceptions are the symbols for plane angular degrees, minutes and seconds
(°, ′ and ″), which are placed immediately after the number with no intervening
space.
• Spaces may be used as a thousands separator (1000000) in contrast to commas or
periods (1,000,000 or 1.000.000) in order to reduce confusion resulting from the
variation between these forms in different countries. In print, the space used for
this purpose is typically narrower than that between words (commonly a thin
space).
• Any line-break inside a number, inside a compound unit or between number and
unit should be avoided, but, if necessary, the latter option should be used.
• The 10th resolution of CGPM in 2003 declared that "the symbol for the decimal
marker shall be either the point on the line or the comma on the line." In practice,
the decimal point is used in English speaking countries as well as most of Asia
and the comma in most continental European languages.
• Symbols for derived units (formed from multiple units by multiplication) are
joined with a space or centre dot (·), for example "N m" or "N·m".[15]
• Symbols formed by division of two units are joined with a solidus (⁄), or given as
a negative exponent. For example, the "metre per second" can be written "m/s",
"m s−1", "m·s−1" or . Only one solidus should be used; e.g., "kg/(m·s2)" or
"kg·m−1·s−2" are acceptable but "kg/m/s2" is ambiguous and unacceptable. Many
computer users will type the / character provided on computer keyboards, which
in turn produces the Unicode character U+002F, which is named solidus but is
distinct from the Unicode solidus character, U+2044.

• In Chinese, Japanese, and Korean language computing (CJK), some of the

commonly-used units, prefix-unit combinations, or unit-exponent combinations
have been allocated predefined single characters taking up a full square. Unicode
includes these in its CJK Compatibility and Letterlike Symbols subranges for
back compatibility, without necessarily recommending future usage.
• When writing dimensionless quantities, the terms 'ppb' (parts per billion) and 'ppt'
 (parts per trillion) are recognised as language-dependent terms, since the value of
billion and trillion can vary from language to language. SI, therefore, recommends
avoiding these terms.[16] However, no alternative is suggested by the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).

[edit] Spelling variations

• The official US spellings for deca, metre, and litre are deka, meter, and liter,
respectively.[17]
• In some English-speaking countries, the unit ampere is often shortened to amp
(singular) or amps (plural) in informal writing as well as on many electrical
appliances. Secs may sometimes be seen instead of s or seconds.

[edit] Conversion factors

The relationship between the units used in different systems is determined by convention
or from the basic definition of the units. Conversion of units from one system to another
is accomplished by use of a conversion factor. There are several compilations of
conversion factors; see, for example, Appendix B of NIST SP 811.[11]

[edit] Length, mass and temperature convergence

Specific gravity is commonly expressed in SI units or in reference to water. Since a cube
with sides of 1 dm has volume of 1 dm3, which is 1 L and, when filled with water, has a
mass of 1 kg, water has an approximate specific gravity of 1 kg/L, which is equal to
1 g/cm3 and 1 t/m3, and will freeze at 0 °C at 1 atmosphere of pressure.
Note that this is only an approximate definition of the kg, as the density of water can
change with temperature; the actual definition is based on a specific platinum-iridium
cylinder held in a vault at the BIPM in Sèvres, France.

[edit] Cultural issues

The near-worldwide adoption of the metric system as a tool of economy and everyday
commerce was based to some extent on the lack of customary systems in many countries
to adequately describe some concepts, or as a result of an attempt to standardise the many
regional variations in the customary system. International factors also affected the
adoption of the metric system, as many countries increased their trade. For use in science,
it simplifies dealing with very large and small quantities, since it lines up so well with the
decimal numeral system.
Many units in everyday and scientific use are not derived from the seven SI base units
(metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela) combined with the SI
prefixes. In some cases these deviations have been approved by the BIPM.[18] Some
examples include:
• The many units of time — minute (min), hour (h), day (d) — in use besides the SI
 second, and are specifically accepted for use according to table 6.[19]
• The year is specifically not included but has a recommended conversion factor.[20]

• The Celsius temperature scale; kelvins are rarely employed in everyday use.

• Electric energy is often billed in kilowatt-hours instead of megajoules.

• The nautical mile and knot (nautical mile per hour) used to measure travel
distance and speed of ships and aircraft (1 International nautical mile = 1852 m or
approximately 1 minute of latitude). In addition to these, Annex 5 of the
Convention on International Civil Aviation permits the "temporary use" of the
foot for altitude.
• Astronomical distances measured in astronomical units, parsecs, and light-years
instead of, say, petametres (a light-year is about 9.461 Pm or about
9461000000000000 m).
• Atomic scale units used in physics and chemistry, such as the ångström, electron
volt, atomic mass unit and barn.
• Some physicists prefer the centimetre-gram-second (CGS) units, with their
associated non-SI electric units.
• In some countries the informal cup measurement has become 250 ml. Likewise, a
500 g "metric pound" is used in many countries. Liquids, especially alcoholic
ones, are often sold in units whose origins are historical (for example, pints for
beer and cider in glasses in the UK — although pint means 568 ml; champagne in
Jeroboams in France).
• A metric mile of 10 km is used in Norway and Sweden. The term metric mile is
also used in some English speaking countries for the 1500 m foot race.
• In the US blood glucose measurements are recorded in milligrams per decilitre
(mg/dL); in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Oceania and Europe, the standard is
millimole per litre (mmol/L) or mM (millimolar).
• Blood pressure is measured in mmHg instead of Pa.

The fine-tuning that has happened to the metric base-unit definitions over the past 200
years, as experts have tried periodically to find more precise and reproducible methods,
does not affect the everyday use of metric units. Since most non-SI units in common use,
such as the US customary units, are nowadays defined in SI units,[21] any change in the
definition of the SI units results in a change of the definition of the older units, as well.

[edit] Trade
The European Union had a directive[22] banning non-SI markings after 31 December 2009
on any goods imported into the European Union. This would apply to all markings on
products, enclosed directions and papers, packaging and advertisements; however
problems experienced during metrication efforts in the UK forced the EU to abandon this
deadline.[23][24]. On September 11, 2007, the EU announced that the United Kingdom
would be exempted from this directive and imperial measurements would still be
permitted indefinitely alongside with the metric system as supplementary indications. The
EU directive is also in the process of being modified to allow the continuation of both US
customary and metric units for US consumer goods sold in the EU.[25]

[edit] See also

• Dimensional analysis • Metrology

• History of measurement • Orders of magnitude

• Metrication • Units of
measurement
• Metrication in the United States
• Long and short
scales

Organisations
• Institute for Reference Materials and • CODATA
Measurements (IRMM)
• International Bureau of Weights and
Measures (BIPM)

Standards and conventions

• Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) • SI base unit

• ISO 31 • SI derived unit

• ISO 1000 • SI electromagnetism

units
• ISO/IEC 80000
• SI prefix
• Metre Convention
• IEC standard binary
prefixes
[hide]
v•d•e
Systems of measurement

Metric systems
International System of Units · metre-kilogram-second · centimetre-gram-second ·
metre-tonne-second · gravitational system

Natural units
Geometric systems · Planck · Stoney · "Schrödinger" · Atomic · Electronic · Quantum
electrodynamical

Conventional systems
Astronomical · Electrical · Temperature

Customary systems
Avoirdupois · Troy · Apothecaries' · English · Imperial · Canadian · US · Danish · Dutch ·
Finnish · French · German · Irish · Maltese · Norwegian · Scottish · Spanish and
Portuguese · Swedish · Polish · Romanian · Russian · Tatar · Hindu · Pegu · Chinese ·
Japanese · Taiwanese

Ancient systems
Greek · Roman · Egyptian · Hebrew · Arabic · Mesopotamian · Persian · Indian

Other systems
Non-standard · Mesures usuelles

[edit] References
1. ^ Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
2. ^ Official BIPM definitions
3. ^ An extensive presentation of the SI units is maintained on line by NIST,
including a diagram of the interrelations between the derived units based upon the
SI units. Definitions of the basic units can be found on this site, as well as the
CODATA report listing values for special constants such as the electric constant,
the magnetic constant and the speed of light, all of which have defined values as a
result of the definition of the metre and ampere.
 In the International System of Units (SI) (BIPM, 2006), the definition of the meter
fixes the speed of light in vacuum c0, the definition of the ampere fixes the
magnetic constant (also called the permeability of vacuum) μ0,
and the definition of the mole fixes the molar mass of the carbon 12 atom M(12C)
to have the exact values given in the table [Table 1, p.7]. Since the electric
constant (also called the permittivity of vacuum) is related to μ0 by ε0
= 1/μ0c02, it too is known exactly.
– CODATA report
4. ^ SI Practical Realization brochure
5. ^ Ambler Thompson and Barry N. Taylor, (2008), Guide for the Use of the
International System of Units (SI), (Special publication 811), Gaithersburg, MD:
National Institute of Standards and Technology, p. 3, footnote 2.
6. ^ International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System
of Units (SI) (8th ed.), p. 111, ISBN 92-822-2213-6,
http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8_en.pdf
7. ^ "The name "kilogram"". http://www1.bipm.org/en/si/history-si/name_kg.html.
Retrieved on 2006-07-25.
8. ^ SI Brochure
9. ^ Barry N. Taylor & Ambler Thompson Ed.. The International System of Units
(SI). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. pp. 23.
http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP330/sp330.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-18.
10. ^ a b Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (2006). The International System
of Units (SI). 8th ed..
http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8_en.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-
02-13. Chapter 5.
11. ^ a b Ambler Thompson & Barry N. Taylor (2008). NIST Special Publication 811:
Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). National Institute of
Standards and Technology. http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/pdf/sp811.pdf. Retrieved
on 2008-06-18.
12. ^ James M. Turner (2008-05-09). Interpretation of the International System of
Units (the Metric System of Measurement) for the United States. Government
Printing Office. http://frwebgate4.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/waisgate.cgi?WAISdocID=829492151256+1+0+0&WAISaction=retrieve.
Retrieved on 2008-06-18.
13. ^ Taylor, B. N.. "NIST Guide to SI Units — Rules and Style Conventions".
National Institute of Standards and Technology.
http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/sec07.html. Retrieved on 2007-04-12.
14. ^ "The International System of Units (SI)". International Bureau of Weights and
 Measures (BIPM). http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8_en.pdf.
Retrieved on 2008-04-18.
15. ^ Barry N. Taylor, Ed.. The International System of Units (SI). Washington, DC:
National Institute of Standards and Technology. pp. 30.
http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP330/sp330.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
16. ^ http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter5/5-3-7.html
17. ^ "The International System of Units". iii.
http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP330/sp330.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-27.
18. ^ BIPM - Table 8
19. ^ BIPM - Table 6
20. ^ NIST Guide to SI Units - Appendix B9. Conversion Factors
21. ^ Mendenhall, T. C. (1893). "Fundamental Standards of Length and Mass".
Reprinted in Barbrow, Louis E. and Judson, Lewis V. (1976). Weights and
measures standards of the United States: A brief history (NBS Special Publication
447). Washington D.C.: Superintendent of Documents. Viewed 23 August 2006 at
http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP447/ pp. 28–29.
22. ^ Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of
the laws of the Member States relating to units of measurement and on the repeal
of Directive 71/354/EEC, as amended with Directive 89/617/EEC (which changed
the cutoff date in article 3.2 to 31 December 1999) and Directive 1999/103/EC
(which further changed the date to 31 December 2009). Retrieved on 2006-07-24.
23. ^ Office for Official Publications of the European Communities (2000).
COUNCIL DIRECTIVE of December 20, 1979 on the approximation of the laws
of the Member States relating to units of measurement and on the repeal of
Directive 71/354/EEC. Available at NIST website. Page 4.
24. ^ BBC NEWS | UK | EU gives up on 'metric Britain'
25. ^ http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/Metric/trade-comm.cfm#eu

[edit] Further reading

• International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and
Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-
632-03583-8. Electronic version.
• Unit Systems in Electromagnetism

• MW Keller et al. Metrology Triangle Using a Watt Balance, a Calculable

Capacitor, and a Single-Electron Tunneling Device
[edit] External links
Official
• BIPM Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (SI maintenance agency) (home
page)
o BIPM brochure (SI reference)

• ISO 1000:1992 SI units and recommendations for the use of their multiples and of
certain other units
o ISO 31/1000/80000

• NIST Official Publications

o NIST Special Publication 330, 2008 Edition: The International System Of

Units (SI)
o NIST Special Pub 814: Interpretation of the SI for the United States and
Federal Government Metric Conversion Policy
• Weights and Measures Act, Canada

• IEEE/ASTM SI 10-2002 Standard for Use of the International System of Units

(SI): The Modern Metric System (ANSI approved, joint IEEE/ASTM standard)
• Rules for SAE Use of SI (Metric) Units

• National Physical Laboratory, UK

Information
• International System of Units at the Open Directory Project

• EngNet Metric Conversion Chart Online Categorised Metric Conversion

Calculator
• Complex Converter Expression Evaluator (with examples) that handles units in
any proper combination
• A Practical Guide to the International System of Units
History
• LaTeX SIunits package manual gives a historical background to the SI system.
Research
• The metrological triangle

• Recommendation of ICWM 1 (CI-2005)

Pro-metric pressure groups
• The UK Metric Association
 • The US Metric Association

• Canadian Metric Association

• Metrication US
Pro-customary measures pressure groups
• Pro-customary measures groups at the Open Directory Project