Chapter 10

Hydraulic Lift

Mechanical Properties of
Fluids
Fluid:
A fluid is something which can
flow. Liquids and gases are fluids.
Thrust
The normal force acting on a
surface is called thrust.
Fluid Pressure
Pressure is defined as the normal
force acting per unit area of a
surface. Or pressure is the thrust per
unit area.
F
P=
A

It is a scalar quantity. It is SI unit is

Nm-2 or Pa. Its dimension is ML-1 T-2
Pascals Law
Pascals law states that the
pressure applied at any point on a
continuous fluid in equilibrium is
equally transmitted to all other
points.

Hydraulic Machines [Applications

of Pascals law]
A number of devices such as
hydraulic lift, hydraulic jack and
hydraulic brakes are based on
Pascals law. In these devices fluids
are used for transmitting pressure.

In a hydraulic lift two pistons are

separated by the space filled with a
liquid. A piston of small area of cross
section is used to exert force directly
on the liquid.
Let F1 be the force exerted on the
first position of area of cross section
F

1
A1. Then pressure, P= A .
1

According to Pascals law this

pressure is transmitted throughout the
liquid. Then the upward force on the
second piston,
F2 P A 2

A
F1
A 2 F1 2
A1
A1

Thus the applied force has been

A2

increased by a factor of A 1 . This

factor is the mechanical advantage of
the device. To get a large force on the
second piston A1 should be small
and A2 should be large.
Pr1: In a car lift, compressed air
exerts a force F1 on a piston having a
radius of 5.0 cm. This pressure is
transmitted to a second piston of
radius 15 cm. If the mass of the car to
be lifted is 1350 kg, calculate F1.

P2 A P1A mg

What is the pressure necessary to

accomplish this task? g=9.8m/s-2.

(P2 P1 )A mg,

Soln:

But m = V = (Ah)
(P2 -P1 )A=Ahg
P2 P1 hg
If the top of the fluid element
considered is open to the
atmosphere, then P1 Pa
and let P2 P. Substituting,
P Pa hg Pa Atmospheric pressure
The term hg is called gauge pressure
and P is called the absolute pressure.

Pr.2: What is the pressure on a

swimmer 10m below the surface of a
lake? Atmospheric pressure is
1.01105Pa.
Ans:
Pressure Depth Relation

Consider a cylindrical element of

fluid having base area A and height
h. As the fluid is at rest, the resultant
of horizontal forces should be zero.
And the resultant vertical forces should
balance the weight of the element. The

forces acting in the vertical direction

are due to the pressure at the top P1A
acting in the in the downward
direction and at the bottom P2A acting
upward. If mg is the weight of the
fluid inside the cylinder, then

Pr. 3: At a depth of 1000m in an

Ocean (a) what is the absolute
pressure?
(b) What is the gauge pressure?
(c) Find the force acting on the
window of area 20cm x 20cm of a
submarine at this depth, the interior of
which is maintained at the sea level
atmospheric pressure. The density of
sea water is 1.03 x 103 kgm-3, g=10
ms-2.
Solution:

Open Tube Manometer

An open tube manometer is an
instrument to measure pressure
differences.

It consists of a U-tube containing

suitable liquid. A low density liquid
such as oil is used to measure small
pressure differences and a high
density liquid such as mercury is
used to measure large pressure
differences.

Atmospheric Pressure
The pressure of the atmosphere at
any point is equal to the weight of a
column of air of unit cross sectional
area.
At sea level, the atmospheric
pressure is 1.013105 Pa.
It is maximum on the surface and it
decreases with altitude.
Measurement of Pressure:
Instruments used to measure
pressure are called Manometers.
Barometer is a device used to
measure atmospheric pressure.

Pr essure at A = Pressure at B
P Pa hg
P Pa hg

By measuring h, we can calculate the

pressure difference P-Pa.
Barometer
Barometer was first designed by the
Italian scientist Evangelista
Torricelli. Mercury is filled in a
narrow glass tube and is inverted into
a trough of mercury. Mercury
remains in the tube up to a height of
76cm above the reservoir level at the
sea level.

A common unit of pressure is the

atmosphere [atm]
1atm= 1.013 105 Pa
Another unit of pressure is torr
( named after Torricelli).
1 torr is the pressure equivalent of
1mm of Hg.
P hg
1 torr = 110-3 13.6 103 9.8
= 133 Pa

The mm of Hg and torr are used in

medicine and physiology. In
meteorology, a common unit is bar
and millibar.
Consider two points A and B at
the surface level of mercury in the
reservoir one (A) outside the tube and
other (B) inside. Since the pressure at
the same horizontal level is the same,
PA PB
Pa P h g

The space above the mercury column

inside the tube contains mercury
vapour whose pressure P is so small
that it may be neglected.

Pa hg
where '' is the density of mercury
and 'h' is the height of mercury column.
Note: (1) At sea level the mercury barometer
give h=76cm.
Pa hg
= 0.76 13.6 103 9.8
1.013 105 Pa .
Units of Pressure

1bar= 105Pa.
Question1: What happens if a hole is
drilled at the top of a barometer tube?
Ans:- When a hole is drilled at the top
of a barometer tube, mercury in it
directly comes in contact with the
atmosphere. Since the pressure
difference between the mercury in the
tube and in the reservoir become zero,
the level falls down in the tube.
Question2: How does the presence of
moisture affect the reading of the
barometer?
Ans: - Moist air is less dense than dry
air. Hence the presence of moisture
decreases the atmospheric pressure.
Decrease of pressure shows a fall in
the height of the mercury column in
the barometer, which indicates
coming of rain and storm.
Question3: Why mercury is used in
barometer?

The SI unit of pressure is pascal [Pa]

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

Ans: Mercury is used in the barometer

because of the following reasons.
It has a shining surface.
High Density (So we can reduce the
height of the tube)
Does not wet glass.
Question4: a) If a student places
barometer in a lift, falling under
gravity, how the barometer reading
will change?
b) If the same barometer is placed
in a lift that is ascending with
acceleration a how the barometer
reading will change?
Ans:

The path taken by a fluid particle

under a steady flow is called a
streamline. It is defined as a curve
whose tangent at any point is in the
direction of the fluid velocity at that
point. A bundle of stream line is
called tube of flow.
Two stream lines will never intersect.
Because, If they intersect, there will
be two velocities at the point of inter
section which is not possible for a
stream line low.
Equation of Continuity

Consider the stream line flow of an

incompressible fluid through a pipe of
varying cross sections. Let A1, A2 and
A3 are the area of cross sections of the
pipe and v1, v2, and v3 are the
velocities at these cross sectional
areas. Let the density of the fluid be .
Stream Line Flow
The study of fluids in motion is
called fluid dynamics.

The volume of the fluid crossing the

area A1 at P in t seconds V1=A1 v1 t
Similarly the volume crossing areas
A2 and A3 at Rand Q are V2=A2v2 t
and V3=A3v3 t

The flow of the fluid is said to be

steady, if at any point the velocity of
each passing fluid particle remains
constant in time.

The mass of the fluid crossing the area

A1 is M1=V1

But the velocities at different points

may differ.

Similarly for A2 and A3,

=A1v1 t

M2= A2 V2 t and M3= A3 V3 t

Since the fluid is incompressible,
SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

M1 =M2=M3 (conservation of mass)

ie., A 1 v1 t A 2 v 2 t A 3 v 3 t

Turbulent Flow

A 1 v1 A 2 v 2 A 3 v 3

When the speed of flow

increases beyond a limiting value,
called critical speed, the flow loses its
steadiness and becomes turbulent.

ie., Av cons tan t

or v

1
A

i.e., at narrower portions of the pipe

the velocity increases and vice versa.
The equation A1v1=A2v2=A3v3 is
called equation of continuity.
Av is the flow rate or volume of fluid
passing in one second. It is also called
volume flux.
Note: - Equation of continuity is a
statement of conservation of mass, in
the flow of incompressible fluid.
Pr.4: A garden hose having an
internal diameter of 2 cm is connected
to a lawn sprinkler that consists of an
enclosure with 12 holes, each 0.2 cm
in diameter. If the water in the hose
has a speed 1.2 m/s at what speed
does it leave the sprinkler holes?
Ans:

Raynolds Number
Raynolds number is a
dimensionless number which gives us
the idea that whether the flow is
streamline or turbulent.
Raynolds number,

Re

vd

density of the fluid

V velocity of the fluid
d stands for dim ension of the pipe
coefficient of viscosity

If Reynolds number is lessthan1000,

the flow is streamline or laminar, if Re
is greater than 2000 the flow is
turbulent. The flow becomes unsteady
for Re between1000 and 2000.

Bernoullis Principle

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

Bernoullis theorem is a statement of

conservation of energy, which states
that the available energy per unit
volume remains constant for a tube of
flow.

Since the same volume V passes

through both the regions (from the
equation of continuity) the work done
by the fluid at the other end (DE) is
W2 = F2. S2
= (P2 A2) .(v2 t )
= P2 V
So the net work done on the fluid,
W = W1 - W2 = P1 V - P2 V
= (P1 - P2) V ----- (1)

Consider a fluid moving in a pipe of

variable area of cross section. Let the
pipe be at different heights as shown
in figure. Suppose an incompressible
fluid is flowing through the pipe in a
steady flow. Its velocity must change
because of variable cross sectional
area, and according to equation of
continuity. A force is required to
produce this acceleration, which is
caused by the fluid surrounding it; the
pressure must be different at different
regions. Bernoullis theorem is a
general relation which connects the
pressure difference between two
points in a pipe to both changes in KE
and change in PE.
Consider the flow at the two regions
BC and DE. In a very small interval of
time t, the fluid at B moves to C at
the same time fluid at D moves to E.

According to work energy theorem

a part of this work is used to change
the potential energy and the other part
is used to change the kinetic energy.
W = KE + PE ----------------- (2)
Change in KE,
1
1
m v 2 2 m v 12
2
2
1

m ( v 2 2 v 12 )
2
1

V ( v 2 2 v 12 ) (3)
2
Change in PE,
K

P E m gh 2 m gh1
m g(h 2 h1)
V g (h 2 h1 ) (4)
Substituting eqns (1), (3), (4) in
eqns(2) we get

The work done on the fluid at the

left end BC is W1 = F1 .S1
= (P1 A1 ).(v1 t) = P 1 V

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

1
(P1 P2 )V V(v22 v12 ) Vg(h 2 h1)
2
Dividing by V,
1
1
P1 P2 v22 v12 gh2 gh1
2
2
1
1
P1 v12 gh1 P2 v22 gh2
2
2
1
P v2 gh Const an t (5)
2

This is Bernoullis equation.

P P r e ssu re e n e rg y p e r
u n it v o lu m e
1
v 2 K E p er u n it vo lu m e
2
g h P E p er u n it vo lu m e

Case 2: - Fluid at rest

v= 0, K E = 0
P+ gh C ons tan t
P1 + gh 1 P2 + gh 2
P1 - P2 = gh 2 gh 1
P1 - P2 = g (h 2 h 1 )
Let h 2 h 1 h
P1 - P2 = g h

This is the expression for

hydrostatic pressure.

Statement: Bernoullis theorem states that

For a steady flow of an
incompressible fluid through a
pipe, the sum of pressure energy
per unit volume, KE per unit
volume and PE per unit volume is
a constant.
Special cases: Case 1: - Flow through a horizontal
pipe

Pr5: Water flowing with a speed of

5m/s on a pipe of cross-sectional area
4 cm2. The water gradually descends
10m as the pipe increases in area to 8
cm2.
a) What is the speed of flow at the
low level?
b) If the pressure at the upper
level is 1.5x 10 5 Pa, what is the
pressure at the low level?
Ans:

If the pipe is horizontal h1=h2

PE = 0
B e r n o u l li 's e q n b e c o m e s ,
P+

1
V
2

C o n s ta n t

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

1
1
v 12 P2 + g h 2 v 2 2
2
2
P 2 = P a n d P1 = P a
0,

P1 + g h 1
but v 2

h 1 y1 an d h 2 y 2
Pa + g y 1

1
v 12 P g h 2
2

1
v 12 ( P Pa ) g ( y 2 y 1 )
2
1

v 12 ( P Pa ) g h
2
2
v 1 2 ( P P a ) g h

Applications of Bernoullis
Principle
Application-1
Speed of Efflux: Torricellis Law
The word efflux means fluid out flow.

v1

2
( P Pa ) 2 g h

This is the expression for speed of

efflux.
Special cases:
Case1: In case of rocket propulsion,
P>>Pa.
2
(P Pa ) 2gh

and 2gh can be neglected.

So the term

Speed of efflux(exhaust gases)

v1

Consider a tank containing a liquid of

density with a small hole in its side
at a height y1 from its bottom.
IfA 2 A 1 ,th e n v 2 v 1 .
Then we may take that the fluid to be
approximately rest at the top, i.e.
v2=0.
At the hole, P1=Pa
Applying Bernoullis equation at
points (1) and (2)

2
(P Pa )

Case2: - In case of an open tank

P = Pa

v1 2gh.This speed is same as

that of a freely falling body
(a body droped from a height).
this eqn (v2 2gh ) is known as
Torricelli 's law.
Application-2 Venturi-meter
Use: - It is a device used to measure
the flow speed of an incompressible
fluid.

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

automobile, Filter pumps, Bunsen

burner, Atomisers and Sprayers
Atomisers and Sprayers

Venturi-meter consists of a tube of

broad diameter and a small
constriction (narrow region at the
middle). A manometer in the form of
a U- tube is also attached to it. By
applying eqn of continuity at the areas
(1) and (2)
A
v 1 (1)
a
T h en by u sin g Berno ulli ' s eqn
for a h orizontal pipe,
1
1
P1 v 1 2 P2 v 2 2
2
2
1
1 A
P1 v 1 2 P2 ( ) 2 v 1 2
2
2
a
1
A

P1 P2 v 1 2 ( ) 2 1 (2 )
2
a

If h is the difference in liq uid level s

in th e m anom eter, w e have
P1 P2 m g h (3)
A v 1 av 2 v 2

w here m is the density of the liqu id

in t he m anom eter.
Fro m eqns (2), (3)
1
v12
2
v1

A 2

( a ) 1 m gh

2 m gh

v1

A 2

( a ) 1

2 m gh

A 2

( a ) 1

1 / 2

The principle behind the venturemeter is used in the Carburator of

When the piston is pushed, the air

inside the tube flows out of it. The
velocity of air at the narrow opening
(nozzle) will be high. So the pressure
at the nozzle decreases. Because of
the pressure difference, the liquid in
the container rises up through the
capillary tube. This liquid meets with
the out flowing air and a mixture of
air and liquid is sprayed out.
Application-3 Blood flow and heart
attack

By the accumulation of plaque, the

artery may get constricted (narrow).
So the velocity at the narrow opening
becomes high and so pressure
becomes low. Then due to the external
pressure, the artery may collapse. The
heart exerts further pressure to open
this artery and forces the blood
through. But repeated collapsing may
occur. This may result in heart attack.
Application-4 Spinning ball
(Magnus effect)

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

10

without damaging other part of the

houses. Explain
Ans:

For a spinning ball, velocity of air

streamlines above it becomes smaller
than that below it. So the pressure
above it becomes greater than that
below it. Thus the ball gets a
downward shift. This is called
Magnus effect.
Application-6 Aerofoil or lift on air
craft wing
Aerofoil is a properly shaped piece,
shaped so as to produce an upward
lift, when it moves horizontally
through air.

When aerofoil moves horizontally

through air, because of its shape, the
air streamlines get crowded above it
than below. So the velocity of air
stream lines above the aerofoil will be
greater than that below it. Therefore
the pressure above the aerofoil
becomes less than that below it. Thus
it gets an upward lift.

Question5: During windstorms, the

roofs of certain houses are blown off

Question6: Two pith balls are

suspended from a rigid support using
strings of equal length. What happens
if air is blown between the balls?
What is the principle behind this?
Ans:

Viscosity
Liquids, flow in the form of layers.
This type of flow is called laminar
flow.

Viscous force

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

11

It is the frictional force which

opposes the relative motion between
the liquid (fluid) layers.

decreases with temperature while it

Newtons viscous formula

temperature increases the randomness

Consider a layer of liquid between

two glass plates. If the upper plate is
pushed tangentially, it moves with
velocity v and the liquid layers suffer
a shearing strain.

of gases increases.]

Note: - The viscosity of a liquid

increases in the case of gases.[When

Stokes Law
When a spherical body of density
moves through a fluid of density ,
the viscous force acting on it is given
by,

F v 6 r v This is known as
Stokes law.
Terminal velocity
Consider a
spherical body
In the case of fluids,

falling through a

Stress strain rate

viscous medium.

F strain

A
tim e
v t
F

A
t
F v

A
F
v

T he con s tan t is called

coefficient of velo city.
v
F A . T his is N ew ton 's
l
viscou s form ula.
U n its o f vis cos ity :
SI un it =P oiseiulle(P ).
-2

Its oh er un its are N m s

o r P a s.
D im ensio ns of voisco sity
are M L-1 T -1

There are three

forces acting on the body:
(i) Weight of the body(Fg) , acting in
the downward direction.
(ii) Buoyant force (Fb), acting in the
upward direction.
(iii) Viscous force(Fv) acting in the
upward direction.
If initially Fg > Fb+Fv, the body
will accelerate in the downward
direction. The velocity of the body
goes on increasing and so viscous
force also increases.

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

12

And finally a stage can be reached

at which the total upward force
(Fv+Fb) becomes equal to the
downward force (Fg). Then the total
force acting on the body become zero.
Thereafter the body will move with
constant velocity called terminal
velocity.

Note:- If <, Vt becomes negative.

Thus the body will go up. This is the

reason why air bubbles rises in liquid
and clouds in the sky moves upward.
Pr6: The terminal velocity of a copper
ball of radius 2mm falling through a
tank of oil at 200 C is 6.5cm/s.
Compute the viscosity of the oil at
20 0C. Density of oil is 1.5x103 kg/m3,
density of copper is 8.9x10 3 kg/m3.
Soln:

When the body attains the terminal

velocity.
Fv+Fb=Fg -------------------- (1)
Fv = 6 rv t
Fg = m g
V g
4 3
r g
3
Fb = weight of fluid displaced
=

mass of fluid displaced g

Volume g
=

4 3
r g
3

e q n (1 )
4
4
6 rv t +
r 3 g r 3 g
3
3
4
6 rv t = r 3 g ( )
3
4 r 3 ( ) g
vt=
3 6 r
vt =

Pr7: Eight spherical rain drops of

equal size are falling vertically
through air with a uniform speed of 1
m/s. What would be the uniform
speed if these drops were to combine
to form one large spherical drop?
Soln:

2 r 2 ( ) g
9

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

13

S I un it is

N
,
m

D im ension M T -2

Effect of surface tension: Due to surface tension the liquid

surfaces act as elastic membranes.
Due to surface tension, liquids have a
tendency to reduce their free surface
area.

Question6: Why liquid drops assume

spherical shape?
Surface tension
If we consider a molecule well
inside the breaker the net force on it is
zero (figure (a)). But for a molecule
on the liquid meniscus (free surface)
there is a net downward force (figure
(b)).

Ans: - Due to surface tension, liquids

have a tendency to reduce their free
surface area. For a given volume
spherical shape has least surface area.
Surface energy
Surface energy is defined as the work
done to increase the surface area of
a liquid meniscus by unity.

W
A

SI unit J

m2

Relation between surface tension

and surface energy
Consider a horizontal liquid film
ending in a bar free to slide over
parallel guides as shown in figure (a).

Definition of surface tension: Surface tension is defined as the

Suppose we move the bar by a small

distance d as shown in figure (b).
Since the area of the film increases a
work must be done for to move the
bar.

tangential force per unit length

acting perpendicular to one side on
an imaginary line of molecules on
the liquid meniscus.

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

14

1mm to 1000 droplets. Surface

tension of water=72x10-3N/m.

The work done for that,

W Fd
F
(2S)d
S= F=S
Since a film has two free surfaces we

have to take 2S instead of S.

Soln:

Work done
Increase in Area
2Sd

S
2d
i.e. surface energy is numerically
equal to surface tension.
Surface energy =

Pr8:Calculate the amount of energy

evolved when eight drops of mercury
of radius 1 mm each, combine to form
one drop(surface tension of mercury is
0.55N/m)
Soln:

Pr10: A wire ring of internal radius

3cm and external radius 3.2 cm is
rested on the surface of a liquid and
then raised. An extra pulling force
equivalent to the weight of 3.03g is
required before the film breaks than it
is after. Calculate the surface tension
of the liquid.
Soln:

Pr9: Surface tension changes with

temperature.
(a) Hot soup is tastier than cold
one. Why?
(b) Calculate the work done in
breaking a water drop of radius

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

15

Angle of contact
Angle of contact is the angle between
the tangent drawn to the liquid
meniscus at the point of contact and
the solid part inside the liquid.

The pressure
inside a liquid
drop is greater
than that
outside it.
The excess pressure P =Pi-P0
Suppose that the liquid drop expands
under its own pressure and its radius
increases from r to r + r.
Then the work done for this
expansion,
W = F r
= (PA) r
[A area, P Pr essure ]
W P 4r 2 r (1)
The same work done can be calculated
u sin g the idea of surface energy
as follows :
W Surface energy increase in area
S (4(r r)2 4r 2 )
S 4 r 2 2rr (r 2 ) 4r 2
S 4 r 2 8rr 4(r)2 4 r 2
S(8rr) (2)

For pure water and clean glass, angle

of contact.

0
Note:
Pressure above a concave
meniscus is greater than that below it.

Pressure above a convex

meniscus is less than that below it.
Excess pressure inside a liquid drop

Since r 2 is very small, 4(r)2

can be neglected.

W S(8rr) (2)
From equations (1) and (2),
P 4 r 2 r 8 rrS
P r 2S
P

2S
r

2S
r
2S
Pi P0
r

Pi P0

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

16

Capillary rise
The ascent of liquid in tubes of very
small bore radius in spite of gravity is
called capillary rise. Capillary rise is

Excess pressure inside a liquid

bubble

A liquid bubble has two

free surfaces S 2S
2(2S)
4S
So

r
r
4S
P
r
Excess pressure inside
an air bubble inside a liquid
P

2S
r

Pr10: A single drop of liquid is split

in to 8 identical drops. What will be
the excess pressure in each drop?
Ans:

due to the pressure difference at the

curved (concave or convex) free
surface.
Expression for capillary ascent

From figure,
a
a
C os r
r
cos
T he pressure difference the
tw o sides of the m eniscus.
2S
2S
P

a
r
C os
2SC os

(1)
a
W e know pressure at the same
horizontal level is the same.
PA PB
Pi P0 hpg Pi P0 hpg
P hpg

From eqns. (1) and (2),

h g

2Scos
2Scos
h
a
a g

Angle of contact
S Surface tension
a Radius of the capillary tube
Density of liquid

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

17

Expression for surface tension :

S

hapg
2cos

Detergents and surface tension

Detergents (soap) reduce the
surface tension of water. Soap
molecule has two ends: One end is
hydrophilic (water loving) and the
other end is oil loving.
One end of detergent molecule form
bond with water and other end forms
with oil dirt. Dirt particles surrounded
by detergent molecule is removed on
rinsing in water.

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut

18