DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL YAMUNAPURAM

BULANDSHAHR

DATE: 11/11/2020 DAY: WEDNESDAY PERIOD I & II

FLUID MECHANICS I

PREPARED BY : ANUGRAH MISHRA PGT PHYSICS

Fluid:
A fluid is a substance that can flow. Both liquids and gases are fluids.
Fluid statics:
The branch of physics that deals with the study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics or
hydrostatics.
Fluid dynamics:
The branch of physics that deals with the study of fluids in motion is called fluid dynamics
or hydrodynamics.
Thrust:
The total force exerted by a liquid on any surface in contact with it is called thrust.
Pressure:
The pressure at a point on a surface is the thrust acting normally per unit area around that
point. It is a scalar quantity and denoted by P, SI unit is N/m 2 or Pascal (Pa) CGS unit is
dyne cm-2.
Practical applications of pressure:
1. A sharp knife cuts better than a blunt one.
2. Railway tracks are laid on wooden sleepers.
3. It is difficult for a man to walk on sand while a camel walks easily on sand.
4. Pins and nails are made to have pointed ends.
Density:
The density of any material is defined as its mass per unit volume.
It is a scalar quantity.
It SI unit is kg/m3
CGS unit is g/cm3
It is denoted by

Specific gravity or relative density:

The specific gravity or relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of the density
of the substance to the density of the water at 4°C. Density of water at 4°C = 1.0 x 10 3 kgm-3
 Pascal’s law:
1. The pressure exerted at any point on an enclosed liquid is transmitted equally in all
directions.
2. A change in pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.
3. The pressure in fluid at rest is same at all points if we ignore gravity.

Proof of Pascal's law:

Consider a small element ABC – DEF in the form
of a right angled prism in the interior of a fluid at
rest. As shown in the figure

The element is so small that all its parts can be

assumed to be at same depth so gravity is same
for all the points

Suppose the fluid exerts pressure Pa, Pb and Pc on the faces BEFC, ADFC and ADEB respectively.

And the forces on these faces are Fa, Fb and Fc, if areas of these faces are Aa, Ab and Ac
In right
Then for balancing of forces.

From the geometry of the figure,

From the above equations

Hence pressure exerted is same in all directions in a fluid at rest which also shows that the
pressure is a scalar quantity. This proves Pascal’s law of transmission of fluid pressure
Experimental verification of Pascal’s law: Consider a vessel
having three openings A, B and C and provided with frictionless
and water tight pistons.
Let their cross-sectional areas be A, 2A and A/2 respectively.
Fill the vessel with water and apply an additional force F on
piston A.

To keep the pistons B and C in their positions, forces equal to 2F and F/2 respectively have
to be applied on them. This shows that the pressure P is transmitted equally in all
directions because

Applications of Pascal’s law: Hydraulic lift: It is an application of Pascal’s Law used to lift
heavy objects.
Hydraulic brakes:
As shown in the figure the hydraulic brake
consists of a tube T containing brake oil. One
end of this tube is connected to the master
cylinder fitted with piston P. The piston P is
attached to the brake pedal through a leaver
system.

The other end of the tube is connected to the wheel cylinder having two pistons P 1 and P2.

The pistons P1 and P2 are connected to the brakes shoes S1 and S2 respectively. The area of
cross-section of the wheel cylinder is larger than that of master cylinder.
When the pedal is pressed, its lever system pushes the piston P into the master cylinder. The
pressure is transmitted through the oil to the pistons P1 and P2 in the wheel cylinder, in
accordance with Pascal’s law. The pistons P1 and P2 are pushed outwards. The brake shoes
get pressed against the inner rim of the wheel, retarding the motion of the wheel. As the
cross-sectional area of the wheel cylinder is larger than that of master cylinder, a small force
Pressure exerted by a liquid column:
Liquid
Consider a vessel of height h and cross-sectional area A filled with a weight
liquid of density ρ. h

The weight of the liquid column exerts a downward thrust on the

bottom of the vessel and the liquid exerts pressure.
Weight of liquid column, Area A
𝑷 =𝒉 𝝆 𝒈

Pressure exerted by the liquid column on the bottom of the vessel is

Variation of liquid pressure with depth:
As shown in the figure, consider a liquid at rest in a container.
The liquid pressure must be same at all the points which are a t
same depth.
Imagine a cylindrical element of the liquid of cross-sectional
area A and height h. let P1 and P2 are the pressures or F1 and F2
are forces at its top point 1 and bottom point 2 respectively.
As the liquid cylinder is at rest so
1. Force due to liquid pressure at the top,
2. Force due to liquid pressure at the bottom,
3. Weight of the cylinder
For equilibrium

If point 1 is at liquid surface then

So
If we neglect the effect of gravity then
Hydrostatic paradox:
Pascal demonstrated experimentally that the pressure exerted by a liquid column depends
only on the height of the liquid column and not on the shape of the containing vessel.

Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope surrounding the

earth is called the atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure: the pressure exerted by the
atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. Its numeric
value at sea level is

Mercury barometer:

If h is the height of mercury column and is density,

Then,
For mercury barometer, h = 76 cm,
So
 Open tube manometer: It is a simple device used to measure the pressure of a gas enclosed
in a vessel. It consists of a U-tube containing some liquid. One end of the tube is open to the
atmosphere and the another end is connected to the vessel.
The total pressure P of the gas is equal to the pressure at A. Thus

Where is the atmospheric pressure, h = BC = difference in the levels of the liquid in the two
arms and is the density of the liquid.

Absolute pressure and gauge pressure: The total or actual pressure P at a

point is called absolute pressure.
Gauge pressure is the difference between the actual pressure (or absolute
pressure) at a point and the atmospheric pressure, ie.

The gauge pressure is proportional to h.

Q. Calculate the height of atmosphere?
A.
Various units of pressure:
SI unit of pressure = N
CGS unit = dyne cm-2
1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa = 1.013 x 106 dyne cm-2
1 bar = 105 Pa = 106 dyne cm-2
1 torr = 1 mm of Hg
1 atm = 1.013 bar = 760 torr
Blood pressure
When heart is contracted, 120 mm of Hg called systolic pressure, and when heart is
expended 80 mm of mercury is called diastolic pressure
Viscosity: It is defined as the property of a fluid by virtue of which an internal force of
friction comes in to play when a fluid is in motion and which oppose the relative motion
between its different layers. The backward dragging force, called viscous drag or viscous
force.
Cause of viscosity:
Examples of viscosity:
Coefficient of Viscosity: Suppose a liquid is flowing steadily in the form of parallel layers on
a fixed horizontal surface. Consider two layers P and Q at distances x and x + dx from the
solid surface and moving with velocities v + dv respectively. Then dv/dx is the rate of change
of velocity with distance in the direction of increasing distance and is called velocity
gradient.
According to newton,

Coefficient of viscosity of a liquid may be defined as the tangential viscous force required to
maintain a unit velocity gradient between its two parallel layers each of unit area. It SI unit
is N s m-2 or kg m-1s-1 called Poiseuille and CGS unit is dyne s cm-2 or g cm-1 s-1 called Poise
Poiseuille’s formula:

Derivation by dimensional method.

Stokes Law: According to Stoke's law, the backward viscous force acting on a small spherical
body of radius r moving with uniform velocity v through fluid of viscosity is given by

Derivation by dimensional method.

Terminal velocity: The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling through
a viscous medium is called its terminal velocity.

So on solving
Streamline, Turbulent and Laminar flow.
1. An iron ball of radius 0.3 cm falls through a column of oil of density 0.94 g cm -3. It is
found to attain a terminal velocity of 0.5 cm/s. Determine the viscosity of the oil. Given
that density of iron is 7.8 g/cm3.
Solution:
2. Eight rain drops of radius 1 mm each falling down with terminal velocity of 5 cm/s
coalesce to form a bigger drop. Find the terminal velocity of the bigger drop.
Solution: radius of each small drop, r = 1 mm = 0.1 cm
Terminal velocity of each small drop, v = 5 cm/s
Volume of bigger drop = volume of 8 small drops,

Terminal velocity of each small drop is given by

Dividing equation ii by i, we get

Streamline flow:
When a liquid flows such that each particle of the liquid passing a given point moves
along the same path and has the same velocity as its predecessor, the flow is called
streamline flow or steady flow.
A streamline is defined as the path, the tangent to which at any point gives the direction
of the flow of liquid at that point.
A bundle of streamlines forming a tubular region is called a tube of flow.
Turbulent flow:
When the liquid velocity exceeds a certain limiting value, called critical velocity, the liquid
flow becomes zig-zag. The path and the velocity of the liquid particle changes
continuously, this flow is called turbulent flow.
Critical velocity:
It is the maximum velocity of a liquid up to which its flow is streamline and beyond which
it becomes turbulent.
Q. Derive the formula for critical velocity by dimensional method. (Hint: )
Properties of streamlines: (Will be discussed in the class only)
Velocity profile: The surface obtained by joining the heads of the velocity vectors for the
particles in a section of a flowing liquid is called a velocity profile.
Reynolds's number: It is a dimensionless parameter whose value decides the nature of flow
of a liquid through a pipe. It is given by,

If Re lies between 0 and 2000, the liquid flow is streamlined or laminar.

If Re is greater then 3000 flow will be turbulent.
If Re is in between 2000 to 3000 liquid flow will be unstable, may change from laminar to
turbulent and vice – versa
Ideal fluid: An ideal fluid is one which is non-viscous, incompressible, and its flow is steady
and irrotational.
Equation of continuity:
Consider a non-viscous and incompressible liquid
flowing steadily between the sections A and B of a
pipe of varying cross-section.
Let a1, a2, v1 v2 and ρ1 ρ2 be the area of cross-
section, velocity and density at two ends of the pipe.
As m = Volume x density = Area of cross-section x length x density
As mass of the fluid that flows through section A in time
And mass of the fluid that flows through section B in time
By conservation of mass,
Or
As the fluid is incompressible, so

This is the equation of continuity. It states that during the streamline flow of the non-
viscous and incompressible fluid through a non-uniform pipe, the product of area of cross
section and the normal fluid velocity remains constant.
Energies possessed by a flowing liquid:
A liquid in a steady flow can have three kinds of energy (i) Kinetic energy, (ii) Potential
energy and (iii) pressure energy.
(i) Kinetic energy: The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its motion is called its
kinetic energy.

Kinetic energy per unit mass of the liquid

Kinetic energy per unit weight

Potential energy: The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its position above the earth’s
surface is called its potential energy.

Pressure energy: The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure is called its
pressure energy. A liquid under pressure can do work and so possesses energy.
Let P be the pressure exerted by the liquid on a frictionless piston of area a. Suppose the
piston moves through distance x under the pressure P.
This work done is stored as the pressure energy of liquid of volume V.
Pressure energy of volume V = PV
Pressure energy per unit volume

Pressure energy per unit mass

Pressure energy per unit weight of the liquid is called pressure head.
Bernoulli’s principle: According to this principle the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy
and potential energy per unit volume of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a
streamlined irrotational flow remains constant along a streamline.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as,

Proof: Let be the density of the fluid.

As the fluid is incompressible, so whatever mass

of fluid enters the pipe at section A in time an
equal mass of fluid flows out at section B in
time This mass is given by
Net work done on the fluid = Work done on the fluid at A – Work done by the fluid at B

By conservation of energy,
Net work done on the fluid = change in K.E. of the fluid + change in P.E. of the fluid

Dividing both sides by we get

This proves Bernoulli’s theorem.

Limitations of Bernoulli’s theorem
1. Bernoulli’s equation ideally applies to fluids with zero viscosity or non-viscous fluids. In
case of viscous fluids, we need to take into account the work done against viscous
drag.
2. Bernoulli’s equation has been derived on the assumptions that there is no loss of
energy due to friction. But in practice, when fluids flow, some of their kinetic energy
gets converted into heat due to the work done against the internal forces of friction or
viscous forces.
3. Bernoulli’s equation is applicable only to incompressible fluids because it does not take
into account the elastic energy of the fluids.
4. Bernoulli’s equation is applicable only to streamline flow of a fluid and not when the
flow is turbulent.
5. Bernoulli’s equation does not take into consideration the angular momentum of the
fluid. So it cannot be applied when the fluid flows along a curved path.
Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem:
Efflux velocity: The word efflux means the outflow of a fluid. Consider a tank containing a
liquid of density with a small hole on its side at a height y1 from the bottom. Let y2 be the
height of the liquid surface from the bottom and P be the air pressure above the liquid
surface.
If A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional area of the side hole and the tank respectively, and v1
and v2 are the liquid velocities at points 1 and 2, then the equation of continuity, we get,

As so the liquid may be taken at rest at the top, ie.

Applying Bernoulli’s theorem at points 1 and 2, we get,
Special case:
1. When P >> Pa, the term 2gh may be ignored so

2. When the tank is open to the atmosphere,

Thus the velocity of efflux of a liquid is equal to the velocity which a body acquires in falling
freely from the free liquid surface to the orifice. This is called Torricelli’s law.
Venturimeter: it is the device used to measure the rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe. It
is also called flow meter or venturi tube.
It consists of a horizontal tube having wider opening of cross-section a1 and a narrow neck
of cross-section a2. these two regions of the horizontal tube are connected to a
manometer, containing a liquid of density .
Let the liquid velocities are v1 and v2 at the
wider and the narrow portions. Let P1 and P2 be
the pressures at these regions. By the equation
of continuity,
If the density of liquid is ρ flowing in horizontal
tube, then

Or,
If h is the height difference in the two arms of the manometer tube, then

Volume of the liquid flowing out per second,

Atomizer or sprayer: As shown in the figure when its rubber bulb is
squeezed, the air blows in the horizontal tube with high speed.
According to the Bernoulli’s theorem this creates low pressure At
the opening of vertical tube thus liquid rises up in the tube and is
pushed out with air through the nozzle in the form of spray.
Dynamic lift: The shape of the aeroplane wings is peculiar. Its
upper surface is more curved than lower surface and its leading
edge is more thick than its trailing edge. So the velocity of air
above the wings is more than the velocity of the air below the
wings. This creates a pressure difference. Thus a vertical lift acts on
the aeroplane.
Blowing off the roofs during storms:
During storms or cyclones, the roofs of the huts or tinned
roofs are generally blown off because during storms
velocity of air above the roof is very high but the velocity
below the roof is very low which creates a pressure
difference which provides a vertical lift.

Spinning ball (Magnus effect): When a spinning ball is thrown, it

deviates from its usual path in flight. This is due to Magnus effect.
When a ball spins rapidly in air about an axis, the air around it is set
into rotation in the form of concentric stream lines thus the velocity
of flow is greater below than above the ball which creates a pressure
difference, due to it a resultant force F acts upon the ball at right
angle to the linear motion in the downward direction, resulting the
ball to move along a curved path. This dynamic force due to spinning
of ball is called Magnus effect.
Blood Flow and Heart Attack: With the passage of time, the accumulation of plaque on the
inner walls of the artery takes place, due to bad eating habits and less physical work. As a
result of it the artery gets constricted.
In order to drive blood through this constriction, a greater demand is placed on the activity
of the heart.
When the activity of the heart increases, the speed of the flow of blood in that artery is
raised so pressure inside the artery becomes low and the artery may collapse due to
external pressure.
The activity of heart is further increased in order to force the blood through that artery. As
the blood rushes through that artery, the internal pressure once again drops due to same
reasons. This will be leading to a repeat collapse. This accounts for the heart attack.