10 - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Fluid: Fluid is a substance that flows under the action of an applied force and does not have a shape of its own.
→ Both liquids and gases are called as fluids
→Fluids are not having any particular shape but solids are having definite shape.
Hydrostatics: Study of fluids at rest is called hydrostatics.
Hydrodynamics: Study of fluids in motion is called hydrodynamics.
Thrust: In general fluids exert force on the walls and base of the containing vessel. That force is called thrust
of the fluid.
Fluid Pressure: The thrust exerted by the fluid per unit surface area is called Fluid pressure.
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝐹
Fluid pressure, P = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
→ It is a scalar quantity
S.I unit: N/m2 or pascal
C.G.S unit: dyne/cm2
Dimensional Formula: [M L-1 T2]
→ Other units of pressure are Torr, bar etc
1 Torr = 133 pa
1 bar =105 pa
𝑚
Density: Mass per unit volume of the substance is called density of the substance Density ρ = 𝑣
3
S.I.unit: kg/m
C.G.S. units: g/cm3
dimensional Formula: [ML-3]
→ density of water is maximum at 40c and the value is 1000 kg\m3

Relative density Ratio of density of a substance and density of water is called relative density.
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Relative density = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

→ It is having no units and dimensions.

Atmospheric Pressure: Different gases which present around earth create pressure on earth. The pressure due
to atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure.

→ Atmospheric pressure at sea level is called one atmospheric pressure and is equal to

1 atm = 1.013 × 105 pa.

Liquid pressure: The thrust exerted by the liquid per unit surface area is called liquid pressure.
→ Liquid pressure at any point in side the liquid is calculated by using the formula, P = heg.
→ So, liquid pressure at a point depends on height and depth.
→ Blood pressure in humans is more at brain that at feet because height is more for brain than feet.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 65
Expression for pressure inside a liquid:
1
C h
2

→ Consider a liquid at rest in a container as shown in the figure.

→ Consider a cylindrical element of liquid ‘c’ having area of cross section A and height H
→ As the fluid is at rest, the resultant force in vertical direction is equal to weight of
cylindrical liquid.
→Let p1 and p2 are the pressures, F1and F2 are the forces acting on top and bottom of
cylindrical element.
F1 =P1 A
F2 =P2 A
Net force, F = F2 ― F1 = (P2 ― P1) A.
→Since net force is equal to weight of cylindrical element,
mg = (P2 – P1) A.
𝑀
⟹ (Vρ) g = (P2-P1) A [∵ρ = ]
𝑉

⟹ A . h . ρ. G = (P2 –P1) A

∴ P2 – P1 = ρ gh

→ If point 1 is shifted to top of the fluid which is open to the atmosphere then P1 =Pa. where Pa is
atmospheric pressure.

∴ P2 –Pa = ρ gh.

P2 = Pa + ρ gh

∴ P2 = Pa + ρ gh

Pascal’s law:

→ According to this law, the pressure applied on an enclosed liquid is transmitted, undiminished to every
portion of the liquid and the walls of the containing liquid.

Demonstration of Pascal’s law:

→ Consider a vessel containing water and fitted with
four frictionless pistons A, B, C, D of different
areas of cross sections a1, a2, a3 and a4.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 66

 F2

B
a2
A C
F1 a1 a3 F3

a4
D
→ Let a force F1 is applied to push the piston A.
F1
Therefore pressure at A is P1 = a1 F4
→According to Pascal’s law pressure is transmitted equally in all directions.
→It is found that the pistons B, C and D can be held in their respective positions if we apply forces F2, F3 and
F4 such that
𝐹2 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
= 𝑎3 = 𝑎4 =𝑎1
𝑎2 3 4 1
⟹ P2 = P3 = P4 = P1 which is Pascal’s law.
Applications of Pascal’s law:
→Pascal’s law is used in the construction of hydraulic lift, hydraulic braking systems etc.
Hydraulic lift: F1
A1 P Q A2

F2

→Working principle of hydraulic lift is “Static liquid pressure applied at any point in the liquid is transmitted
equally and undiminished in all directions through out the liquid”.
𝐹
→At point P, the force F1 acts over the area A1, P1= 𝐴1
1

𝐹
→At point Q, the force F2 acts over the area A2, P2=𝐴2
2

→But according to Pascal’s law, the pressure P1 is transmitted equally to piston Q.

→ ∴ P1 =P2
𝐹1 𝐹
= 𝐴2
𝐴1 2

→Since A2 > A1 , F2 >F1

→Thus a small force applied on the smaller piston appears as a large force on the large piston.
Hydrostatic paradox:

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 67

 A B C

→ Consider three vessels A, B and C of different shapes

→ All the vessels are having same base area and all of them filled with water to the
same height.
→ The pressure at the base of each vessel is same, regardless of the shapes of the vessels since pressure depends
on only height and independent on size and shape of the containing vessel.
→This is contradictory to common sense because the three vessels are of different shapes
and hold different amounts of water.
→This is known as hydrostatic paradox.
Archimedes principle:

→ According to the principle, when a body is immersed partially or completely in a fluid,

it looses its weight which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

→ From this principle,

Apparent weight of a body = (weight of the body) – (weight of the displaced liquid)
Types of flow of a fluid:
→ Fluid flow is of two types 1.Stream line flow
2. Turbulent flow
Stream line flow: If the velocity of the fluid at any point is constant and does not change with time either in
magnitude or direction, then that flow is called stream line flow.
Turbulent flow: If the velocity of the fluid at any point is not constant and changes with time then the flow is
called Turbulent flow.

Stream lines and their properties:

Stream line is a line along which a particle of fluid moves in streamline motion.

Properties:

(1) Stream lines are smooth curves

(2) The tangent drawn to the stream line at any point gives the direction of flow of fluid at that point.
(3) Stream lines of flow do not intersect. If they do intersect at the point of intersection, there will be two
directions of flow which is not possible.

Difference between Stream line flow and Turbulent flow:

Stream line flow Turbulent flow

1 It is a regular and order flow of liquid
2 In stream line flow velocity of all the liquid
particles is same at given point
3 The motion of liquid particles is parallel to each
other
1 It is irregular and disorderly flow of liquid
2 In turbulent flow, the velocity of all the liquid
particles is different at a given point
3 The motion of liquid particles is not parallel

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 68

4 Every liquid particle moves with a velocity less 4 Every liquid particle moves with a velocity
than the critical velocity greater than the critical velocity
Critical Velocity: The minimum velocity at which the flow of a liquid changes from stream line to turbulent
flow is called Critical velocity.
Reynold Number(R): The critical velocity of a liquid is

1. Directly proportional to co efficient of viscosity ()

2. Inversely proportional to density (d)
3. Inversely proportional to radius of tube (r)

∴ Vc ∝ dr

Vc = R .
dr
Vc dr
Where R is called Reynold Number R= 

Equation of continuity:
The mass of liquid entering into the tube per second is equal to the mass of the liquid coming out of the tube in
one second
Q
V2
P

V1 a2
a1
→ let a fluid is flowing steadily in a pipe.
→ The mass of liquid entering the tube at P with V1 in unit time =A1 V1 P1
→ The mass of liquid leaving the tube at q with V2 in unit time =A2 V2 P2
→ From law of conservation of mass
A1 V1 P1 = A2 V2 P2
If P1=P2, A1 V1 = A2 V2 ⟹ AV= const
→ This is called equation of equity.
→ The product of AV is called volume rate of flow or volume flux.

Different types of energies possessed by a liquid:

→ A liquid in motion is having three energies.
(1) Potential energy (2) Kinetic energy (3) Pressure energy
→The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its position is called potential energy
and expression for potential energy per unit volume is equal to 𝜌gh
→The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy
1
and expression for kinetic energy per unit volume is equal to 2 PV2.
→The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure is called pressure energy
and expression for pressure energy per unit volume is P.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 69
Bernoulli’s Theorem:
Statement: For incompressible, non viscous fluid in a steady state of flow, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy per unit volume remains constant.
A
Explanation: V1

P1
B

P2
h1
V2
h2

→ Consider a tube of flow AB having non uniform area of cross section

→ Let P1, V1 and h1 are pressure, velocity and height of the liquid at A
→ Let P2, V2, h2 are pressure, velocity and height of the liquid at B
→ Let 𝝆 be the density of liquid
1
→ Total energy at A per unit volume = P1+ 2 𝝆 V12 + 𝝆 gh1
1
→ Total energy at B per unit volume = P2 + 2 𝝆 v22 + 𝝆 gh2
→According to Bernoulli’s theorem,
Total energy at A = total energy at B
1 1
P1 + 2 𝝆 v12 + 𝝆gh1 = P2 + 2 𝝆 v22 + 𝝆 gh2

1
∴ P + 2 𝝆 V2 + 𝝆 gh = const
Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem:
On the basis of Bernoulli’s theorem, venturimeter, atomizers, sprays are constructed.
(1) Venturimeter: It is a gauge attached to a pipe to measure the speed of flow of a liquid in the pipe .
→ It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem.
(2) Dynamic lift on an aircraft:
→ When a body is moving in a fluid, due to difference of pressure, some force will act
on the body. This force is called dynamic lift.
L
R

V2
D

V1
(V2> V1)

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 70

 → The shape of an aeroplane wing is such that it is slightly convex upward and Concave downward.
→ Therefore, the air passing over the top of wing travels a longer path than that at the
lower surface in the same time.
→ Thus, the velocity of air above the wing is more than the velocity of air below the wing.
→ According to Bernoulli’s theorem, pressure at upper surface is less than pressure at
lower surface.
→ due to the difference of pressure, upward force will act on the wing called dynamic lift.
(3) Spinning of a ball (Magnus effect):
→ Let a ball is moving to the right, be given a spin at the top of the ball.
Velocity increases
and pressure
decreases

No
Spin Spin

Velocity decreases and pressure increases

→ The velocity of the air at the top is higher than the velocity of air below the ball
→ So, according to Bernoulli’s theorem, the pressure above the ball is less than the
pressure below the ball.
→Thus, there is net upward force on the spinning ball, so the ball follows a curved
path .This effect is known as Magnus effect.

(4) Torricelli’s Theorem:

h
h1 V
h2

Statement: “The efflux velocity of a liquid from an orifice is equal to velocity acquired by
a freely falling body dropped from same height of orifice”.
Proof:
→ Consider a tank filled with a liquid of density 𝝆.
→ An orifice of small area is at one end of wall at a height ‘h’ from bottom of tank.
→ Let h1 and h2 are heights of liquid from bottom and from orifice respectively.
→ Let V is the velocity of liquid coming from orifice.
𝑃𝑜 1
→ On top, the total energy per unit mass = + × 0 + gh1 ---------(1)
𝜌 2
𝑃𝑜 1
At orifice, the total energy per unit mass + × V2 + gh2 -------- (2)
𝜌 2

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 71

→ From Bernoulli’s theorem, total energy is constant at all positions
𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜 1
∴ + 𝑜 + 𝑔ℎ1 = + 𝑣 2 + 𝑔ℎ2
𝜌 𝜌 2
1
∴ 𝑣 2 = 𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
2

𝑣 2 = 2𝑔ℎ [∵ ℎ = ℎ1 − ℎ2 ]

∴ 𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ
→ If a body is dropped from height h, its velocity on reaching the ground is
𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ
→ Thus velocities are equal
Viscosity: The property of liquid by virtue of which an opposing force comes into play between different layers
of liquid, whenever there is a relative motion between these layers of the liquid is called viscosity
→ When a layer of liquid slides over the other layer,
viscosity exists

Co-efficient of viscosity:
→ Consider a flow of liquid over the horizontal surface
→ Let us consider two layers AB and CD moving
with velocities V and V + dv at a distance x and
x + dx respectively
→ The viscous drag on a particular layer is directly
V +dv
proportional dx

1. Area of the layers

V
2. Velocity gradient. x
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 𝛼 𝐴. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = − 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 --------- (1) where  = co efficient of viscosity
Negative sign shows that direction of viscous force is just opposite to the direction of motion of the
liquid
𝑑𝑣
→ If A = 1, 𝑑𝑥 = 1 then from (1),  = F
→ Thus co-efficient of viscosity of liquid is defined as the viscous force acting per unit area of the layer
having unit velocity gradient perpendicular to the direction of the flow of the liquid.
C.G.S unit = 1 poise = 1 dyne S cm-2
S.I unit = 1 Nsm-2
Dimensional formula: [M L-1 T-1]

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 72

Effect of temperature on viscosity:
1. Liquids: With increase in temperature, viscosity of liquid decreases. In liquids when temperature
increases, the magnitude of the cohesive force decreases as the molecular separation increases.
Therefore on increasing temp, viscosity decreases.
2. Gases: With increase in temperature, viscosity of gases will also increase. As the temperature increases,
exchange of momentum increases and therefore the viscosity of gases increases.
Stokes law and expression for terminal velocity:
Statement: The viscous force acting on an object moving in a fluid is directly proportional to the velocity of the
object
→ Viscous force acting on a freely falling spherical object is
F = 6 𝛱  r vt Where  = co-efficient of viscosity of fluid
r = radius of the spherical object vt = terminal velocity
Terminal velocity: If the resultant force acting on a freely falling body is zero then the body falls with uniform
velocity instead of falling with uniform acceleration. This velocity is called Terminal velocity.
Expression:
→ Consider a sphere of radius ‘r’ density ‘𝜌’ falling in a medium of density 𝜎
→ Forces on the sphere are
4
i. Weight of sphere W = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 lg(𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠) FB Fv
4
ii. Force of Buoyancy, FB = 𝜋𝑟 3 σg(𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠) W
3
iii. Viscous force, Fv = 6 𝛱  r v (upwards)
→ Initially W > FB + Fv
→ Fv increases with time and at some time, W = FB + Fv i.e net force on sphere is equal to zero and the
velocity is called terminal velocity (Vt).
W = FB + Fv
4 4
⟹ 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜎𝑔 + 6 Π  r vt
3 3
4 3
∴ 6 Π  r vt = 𝜋𝑟 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
3
2 (𝜌
2𝑟 − 𝜎)𝑔
∴ 𝑣𝑡 =
9

Surface Tension:

→ Surface tension is due to the electromagnetic forces between the molecules

→ The free surface of liquid behaves like a thin stretched elastic membrane and has the tendency to acquire
a minimum surface area. This property is called Surface tension.
→ Definition: The force acting per unit length of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of a liquid,
normal to the line and tangential to the surface is called surface tension of the liquid.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 73

 → If F is the force acting perpendicular to the imaginary line of length ‘l’ then
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
Surface tension T = =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙

C.G.S unit = dyne /cm S.I unit = N/m

Dimensional formula: [M T-1]

Surface Energy: The additional potential energy per unit area of the surface film is called Surface energy
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
Surface energy =
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
2
C.G.S unit = erg /cm
S.I unit = J/m2
Dimensional formula: [M T-2]
Relation between surface energy and surface tension:

→ Consider a liquid film formed across a rectangular frame ABCD as shown in the figure
C D
→ AB is a movable wire. T T
→ Liquid film has two surfaces
→ Let T be the surface tension of the liquid and l be the length of the wireA B

A𝖨 B𝖨

→ The force of surface tension acting at right angles to the movable wire AB upward is FF = T.2l
→ Hence unequal downward force F has to act on the wire AB to keep it in equilibrium
→ Now the film is slowly stretched by a small distance ‘x’ to the position A𝖨 B𝖨
→ The mechanical work done by the force is

Work = Force × displacement

=2Tl.x

= 2 T (l x)

= T . △A [∵2lx= increase in area = △A]

→ This work done is called surface energy

∴ Surface Energy = Surface tension × increase in area

Effect of temperature on Surface tension:

→ On increasing liquid, surface tension of liquid will decrease.

→ On increasing temperature, the cohesive forces between the molecules will decrease and hence surface
tension decreases.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 74

Effect of impurities on Surface tension:
1. If the liquid surface is contaminated by impurities, its surface tension decreases. Eg: When oil,
grease, kerosene etc. is sprayed on water surface, surface tension of water decreases.
2. The added impurities are highly soluble in liquid, its surface tension increases. Eg: When highly
soluble salts like NaCl, ZnSO4 etc are mixed with water, its surface tension decreases
3. If the added impurities are weakly soluble in liquid, its surface tension decreases. Eg: When soap is
mixed with water, the surface tension decreases, and washing is more effective.
Angle of Contact: when a solid body is dipped in a liquid, the angle between the tangent drawn to the liquid
surface and the solid at the point of contact measured inside the liquid

→ For Water – glass pair, angle of contact is less than 900 (𝛳 < 900)
→ If angle of contact between a liquid and a surface is less than 900 (𝛳 < 900), that liquid can wet the
surface. Eg: water can wet clothes.
→ If angle of contact between a liquid and a surface is greater than 900 (𝛳 > 900), that liquid cannot wet the
surface. Eg: water cannot wet wax or plastic materials.
Capillarity and examples:
The property of rise or fall of a liquid due to surface tension in a capillary tube is called capillarity.
Examples of capillarity in daily life:
1. Kerosene lamp glows due to capillary action.
2. When a piece of blotting paper is placed on an ink dot, it absorbs ink because of capillarity.
3. Molten wax in candle rises up the wick by capillary action.
4. Due to capillary action, the water and sap(in trees and plants) rise form the roots to the stem and leaves
through capillaries formed with cells.
Expression for capillary rise:
Let a capillary tube of radius ‘r’ is dipped in a liquid of density ‘𝜌’
→ Due to capillarity, liquid rises in the capillary tube
2𝑇 cos 𝜃
→ Expression for capillary rise , ℎ = 𝑟𝜌𝑔
𝑟ℎ𝜌𝑔
→ By calculating ‘h’ we can measure the surface tension of liquid 𝑇 =
2cos 𝜃
𝑟ℎ𝜌𝑔
→ For pure water 𝛳 = 00 𝑇 = 2
Excess pressure inside a soap bubble and liquid drop:
→ Due to excess pressure over atmospheric pressure, liquid drops and soap bubbles will be formed.
2𝑇
→ Excess pressure inside a liquid drop, 𝑃 = 𝑟 Where r = radius of liquid drop, T = surface tension.
4𝑇
→ Excess pressure inside a soap bubble, 𝑃 = 𝑟
→ A liquid surface has a tendency to have minimum surface area due to the property of surface tension.
For a given volume, the surface area is minimum for a sphere. This is why small drops of liquid and
bubbles attain spherical shape.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 75