Reliance Foundation School, Koparkhairane

Session 2020-2021
Handout

Class : _____ Sec: _______ Roll No.: __________

Topic : ___________________

Fluids are the sustances which can flow e.g., liquids and gases. It does not possess definite shape.
• When an object is submerged in a liquid at rest, the fluid exerts a force on its surface normally.
It is called thrust of the liquid.
• Pressure
The thrust experienced per unit area of the surface of a liquid at rest is called pressure.

• When a liquid is in equilibrium, the force acting on its surface is perpendicular everywhere. The
pressure is the same at the same horizontal level.
• The pressure at any point in the liquid depends on the depth (h) below the surface, density of
liquid and acceleration due to gravity.

• Pascal’s Law
According to Pascal’s Law, the pressure applied to an enclosed liquid is transmitted undiminished
to every portion of the liquid and the walls of the containing vessel.

• Hydraulic system works on Pascal’s law. Force exerted to area, ratio will be same at all
cross¬sections.

Note: A large force is experienced in larger cross-section it a smaller force 4cross is applied in
smaller by the relation section.

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 Hydraulic Press

A multiplication of force can
be achieved by the application
of fluid pressure according
to Pascal's principle, which for
the two pistons implies

P1 = P2

This allows the lifting of a

heavy load with a small force,
as in an auto hydraulic lift, but
of course there can be no
multiplication of work, so in an
ideal case with no frictional
loss:

Winput = Woutput

Calculation

GAUGE PRESSURE
Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is positive for
pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures below it.
In fact, atmospheric pressure does add to the pressure in any fluid not enclosed in a rigid
container. This happens because of Pascal’s principle. The total pressure, or absolute pressure, is
thus the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure: Pabs = Pg + Patm where Pabs is absolute
pressure, Pg is gauge pressure, and Patm is atmospheric pressure. For example, if your tire gauge
reads 34 psi (pounds per square inch), then the absolute pressure is 34 psi plus 14.7 psi (Patm in
psi), or 48.7 psi (equivalent to 336 kPa).
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.

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• A column of height h of a liquid of density p exerts a pressure P given

• If Pa be the atmospheric pressure then pressure in a liquid at a depth h from its free surface is
given by P = Pa+ hρg. Relation is true for incompressible fluids only.
• The gauge pressure (Pg), is the difference of the absolute pressure (P) and the atmospheric
pressure (Pa).
Absolute pressure (P) = Gauge pressure (Pg) + Atmospheric pressure (Pa)
Pg=P-Pa

Av = Constant
Continuity equation derivation
Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe of non uniform size.The particles in the fluid move along
the same lines in a steady flow.

If we consider the flow for a short interval of time Δt,the fluid at the lower end of the pipe covers
a distance Δx1 with a velocity v1 ,then:
Distance covered by the fluid = Δx1 = v1Δt
Let A1 be the area of cross section of the lower end then volume of the fluid that flows into the
pipe at the lower end =V= A1 Δx1 = A1 v1  Δt
If ρ is the density of the fluid ,then the mass of the fluid contained in the shaded region of lower
end of the pipe is:

Δm1=Density × volume
Δm1 = ρ1A1v1Δt ——–(1)
Now the mass flux defined as the mass of the fluid per unit time passing through any cross section
at lower end is:

Δm1/Δt =ρ1A1v1

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 Mass flux at lower end = ρ1A1v1 ———————(2)
If the fluid moves with velocity v 2 through the upper end of pipe having cross sectional area A 2 in
time Δt,then the mass flux at the upper end is given by:
Δm2/Δt = ρ2A2v2 
Mass flux at upper end =ρ2A2v2  ———————–(3)
Since the flow is steady,so the density of the fluid between the lower and upper end of the pipe
does not change with time.Thus the mass flux at the lower end must be equal to the mass flux at
the upper end so:

ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2  ———————-(4)

In more general form we can write :

ρ A v =constant
This relation describes the law of conservation of mass in fluid dynamics.If the fluid is in
compressible ,then density is constant for steady flow of in compressible fluid so

According to equation of continuity, if there is no fluid source or sink along the length of a pipe,
then mass of the fluid crossing any section of the pipe per unit time remains constant.
i.e„ a1 v1ρ1 = a2v2 ρ2
For incompressible liquids (i.e., fluids) ρ1 = ρ2 and hence the equation is given as
a1v1=a2v2
– It means that speed of flow of liquid is more where the pipe is narrower and speed of flow is
less
where the cross-section of pipe is more.

• Energy of a liquid
A liquid can possess three types of energies: (i) kinetic energy, (ii) potential energy and (iii)
pressure energy
The energy possessed by a liquid due to its motion is called kinetic energy i.e., 1/2mv 2.
The potential energy of a liquid of mass m at a height h is given by P.E. = mgh
The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure is called pressure energy. Pressure
energy of liquid in volume dV = PdV
Pressure energy per unit mass of the liquid

Different Types of Energies or Head of a Liquid in Motion. The following are the three types of

energies or head of flowing liquids:

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1. Potential energy or potential head. It is due to the position above some suitable datum line. It

is denoted by z.

2. Kinetic energy or kinetic (or velocity) head. It is due to the velocity of flowing liquid. Its value is

given by v2/ 2g, where v is the velocity of flow and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

3. Pressure energy or pressure head. It is due to the pressure of liquid. Its value is given by p/w,

where p is the pressure in N / m2 and w is the weight density of the liquid in N / m3.

Note: The total energy or total head of a liquid particle in motion is given as follows :

Total energy, E = Potential energy + Kinetic energy + Pressure energy

and

Total head, H = Potential head + Kinetic head + Pressure head

Learning Objective:

Adapt Bernoulli’s equation for flows that are either unsteady or compressible

KeyTakeaways

Key Points

 The simplest form of Bernoulli’s equation (steady and incompressible flow) states that the
sum of mechanical energy, potential energy and kinetic energy, along a streamline is
constant. Therefore, any increase in one form results in a decrease in the other.
 Bernoulli’s equation considers only pressure and gravitational forces acting on the fluid
particles. Therefore, if there is no change in height along a streamline, Bernoulli’s equation
becomes a balance between static pressure and velocity.
 The steady-state, incompressible Bernoulli equation, can be derived by integrating
Newton’s 2nd law along a streamline.

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Key Terms

 viscosity: A quantity expressing the magnitude of internal friction in a fluid, as measured by

the force per unit area resisting uniform flow.

 Ideal Fluid: An inviscid and incompressible fluid

 incompressible: Unable to be compressed or condensed




o Consider the fluid initially lying between B and D. In an infinitesimal timeinterval Δt, this fluid
would have moved.
o Suppose v1= speed at B and v2= speedat D, initial distance moved by fluid from to C=v 1Δt.
o In the same interval Δtfluid distance moved by D to E = v 2Δt.
o P1= Pressureat A1, P2=Pressure at A2.

o Work done on the fluid atleft end (BC) W1 = P1A1(v1Δt).

o Work done by the fluid at the other end (DE)W2 = P2A2(v2Δt)
o Net work done on the fluid is W1 – W2 = (P1A1v1Δt− P2A2v2Δt)
o By the Equation of continuity Av=constant.
oP1A1 v1Δt - P2A2v2Δt where A1v1Δt =P1ΔV and A2v2Δt = P2ΔV.
o Therefore Work done = (P1− P2) ΔVequation (a)
o Part of this work goes in changing Kinetic energy, ΔK = (½)m (v 22 – v12) and part in
gravitational potential energy,ΔU =mg (h2 − h1).
o The total change in energy ΔE= ΔK +ΔU = (½) m (v22 – v12) + mg (h2 − h1). (i)
o Density of the fluid ρ =m/V or m=ρV
o Therefore in small interval of time Δt, small change in mass Δm
o Δm=ρΔV (ii)
o Putting the value from equation (ii) to (i)
o ΔE = 1/2 ρΔV (v22 – v12) + ρgΔV (h2 − h1)  equation(b)
o By using work-energy theorem: W = ΔE
o From (a) and (b)
o (P1-P2) ΔV =(1/2) ρΔV (v22 – v12) + ρgΔV (h2 − h1)

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 o P1-P2 = 1/2ρv22 - 1/2ρv12+ρgh2 -ρgh1(By cancelling ΔV from both the sides).
o After rearranging we get,P1 + (1/2) ρ v12 + ρg h1 = (1/2) ρ v22 + ρg h2
o P+(1/2) ρv2+ρg h = constant.
o This is the Bernoulli’s equation.

The flow of an ideal fluid in a pipe ofvarying cross section. The fluid in asection of length v1Δt
moves to the sectionof length v2Δt in time Δt.

Bernoulli’s equation: Special Cases

1. When a fluid is at rest. This means v1=v2=0.
o From Bernoulli’s equation P1 + (1/2) ρ v12 + ρg h1 = (1/2) ρ v22 + ρg h2
o By puttingv1=v2=0 in the above equation changes to
o P1-P2= ρg(h2-h1). This equation is same as when the fluids are at rest.
2. When the pipe is horizontal.h1=h2.This means there is no Potential energy by the virtue of height.
o Therefore from Bernoulli’s equation(P1 + (1/2) ρ v12 + ρg h1 = (1/2) ρ v22 + ρg h2)
o By simplifying,P+(1/2) ρ v2 = constant.
 .
For an incompressible, non-viscous, irrotational liquid having streamlined flow, the sum of
the pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit mass is a constant i.e.,

• For steady flow of a non-viscous fluid along a horizontal pipe, Bernoulli’s equation is
simplified as

Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem

 
(a) Blowing off roofs during wind storm 

In olden days, the roofs of the huts or houses were designed with a slope as shown in Figure.7.34.
One important scientific reason is that as per the Bernoulli’s principle, it will be safeguarded
except roof during storm or cyclone.

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During cyclonic condition, the roof is blown off without damaging the other parts of the house. In
accordance with the Bernoulli’s principle, the high wind blowing over the roof creates a low-
pressure P1. The pressure under the roof P2 is greater. Therefore, this pressure difference (P2–
P1) creates an up thrust and the roof is blown off.

(b) Aerofoil lift

The wings of an airplane (aerofoil) are so designed that its upper surface is more curved than the
lower surface and the front edge is broader than the real edge. As the aircraft moves, the air
moves faster above the aerofoil than at the bottom as shown in Figure 7.35.

According to Bernoulli’s Principle, the pressure of air below is greater than above, which creates
an upthrust called the dynamic lift to the aircraft.

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(c) Bunsen burner

In this, the gas comes out of the nozzle with high velocity, hence the pressure in the stem
decreases. So outside air reaches into the burner through an air vent and the mixture of air and
gas gives a blue flame as shown in Figure 7.36.

(d) Venturimeter

This device is used to measure the rate of flow (or say flow speed) of the incompressible fluid
flowing through a pipe. It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem. It consists of two wider
tubes A and A' (with cross sectional area A) connected by a narrow tube B (with cross sectional
area a). A manometer in the form of U-tube is also attached between the wide and narrow tubes
as shown in Figure7.37. The manometer contains a liquid of density ‘ρm’.

Let P1 be the pressure of the fluid at the wider region of the tube A. Let us assume that the fluid
of density ‘ρ’ flows from the pipe with speed ‘v1’ and into the narrow region, its speed increases
to ‘v2’. According to the Bernoulli’s equation, this increase in speed is accompanied by a decrease
in the fluid pressure P2 at the narrow region of the tube B. Therefore, the pressure difference
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between the tubes A and B is noted by measuring the height difference (ΔP = P1−P2) between the
surfaces of the manometer liquid.

From the equation of continuity, we can say that Av1 = a v2 which means that

Using Bernoulli’s equation,

From the above equation, the pressure difference

Thus, the speed of flow of fluid at the wide end of the tube A

The volume of the liquid flowing out per second is

(e) Other applications

This Bernoulli’s concept is mainly used in the design of carburetor of automobiles, filter pumps,
atomizers, and sprayers. 

For example, the carburetor has a very fine channel called nozzle through which the air is allowed
to flow in larger speed. In this case, the pressure is lowered at the narrow neck and in turn, the
required fuel or petrol is sucked into the chamber so as to provide the correct mixture of air and
fuel necessary for ignition process.

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