IPU PHYSICS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

CHAPTER-10: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Fluid:
Fluid is the name given to a substance which begins to flow when external force is applied on it. Liquids
and gases are fluids. Fluids do not have their own shape but take the shape of the containing vessel. The
branch of physics which deals with the study of fluids at rest is called hydrostatics and the branch which deals
with the study of fluids in motion is called hydrodynamics.

Thrust:
In general fluids exert force on the walls and base of the containing vessel. The total force exerted by a
liquid on any surface in contact with it is called thrust of the fluid. Its S.I unit is newton (N).

Fluid Pressure:
The thrust exerted by the fluid per unit surface area is called Fluid pressure.
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝐹
Fluid pressure, P = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
It is a scalar quantity. Its S.I unit is N/m2 or pascal and its C.G.S unit: dyne/cm2
Dimensional Formula: [M L-1 T2].

Practical applications of pressure:

 A sharp knife cuts better than a blunt one.
 Railway tracks are laid on wooden sleepers.
 It is difficult for a man to walk on sand while a camel walks easily.
 Pins and nails are made to have pointed ends.

Density:
The density of any material is defined as its mass per unit volume.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)
Density, ρ =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑣)
Its S.I.unit is kg/m3 and C.G.S. units is g/cm3.
Its dimensional Formula is [ML-3]
Density of water is maximum at 40c and its value is 1000 kg\m3.

Relative density or Specific gravity:

It is defined as the ratio of density of a substance to the density of water at 40c.
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Relative density =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 40 𝑐

It is having no units and dimensions.

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PASCAL’S LAW:
It states that, “The pressure exerted at one point of the enclosed liquid in equilibrium of rest is
transmitted equally to all other points of the liquid and also to the walls of the container, provided the
effect of gravity is neglected”.

Applications of Pascal’s law:

(i) Hydraulic lift:

An important application of Pascal’s law is the hydraulic lift used to lift heavy objects. A schematic
diagram of a hydraulic lift is shown in the Figure. If a small force f is applied on piston of C then the pressure
exerted on the liquid f
Load
f
P [a = Area of cross section of the piston in C] C D
a
This pressure is transmitted equally to piston of cylinder D. F

Hence the upward force acting on piston of cylinder D.

f  A
F  PA A f 
a a
As A  a , therefore F  f . So heavy load placed on the larger piston is easily lifted upwards by
applying a small force.
(ii) Hydraulic break:
It is used in automobiles are based on Pascal’s law of transmission of pressure in a liquid.
The schematic diagram of a hydraulic brake
system is as shown in the figure. The brake system
has a main cylinder filled with brake oil. The main
cylinder is provided with a piston P which is
connected to the brake pedal through a lever
assembly. A T shaped tube is provided at the other
end of the main cylinder. The wheel cylinder having
two pistons P1 and P2 is connected to the T tube.
The pistons P1 and P2 are connected to the brake
shoes S1 and S2 respectively. When the brake pedal
is pressed, piston P is pushed due to the lever
assembly operation. The pressure in the main
cylinder is transmitted to P1 and P2. The pistons P1 and P2 push the brake shoes away, which in turn press
against the inner rim of the wheel. Thus the motion of the wheel is arrested. The area of the pistons P 1 and P2
is greater than that of P. Therefore a small force applied to the brake pedal produces a large thrust on the
wheel rim. The main cylinder is connected to all the wheels of the automobile through pipe line for applying
equal pressure to all the wheels.

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Liquid pressure:
The thrust exerted by the liquid per unit surface area is called liquid pressure.
Variation of liquid pressure with depth:
Consider a liquid at rest in a container as shown in the figure. Imagine a cylindrical element of liquid having
area of cross section A and height h.
Let p1 and p2 are the pressures, F1and F2 are the forces acting on top and bottom of cylindrical element.
As the fluid is at rest, the resultant horizontal force should be zero. And various vertical forces acting on
cylindrical liquid are,
1. Force due to liquid pressure at face-1,
F1 = P1 A acting downwards.
2. Force due to liquid pressure at face-2,
F2 = P2 A acting upwards.
3. Weight of the liquid cylinder acting downwards,
W = mass × g = volume × density × g = Ahρg
As the liquid cylinder is in equilibrium, net downward force = net upward force
F1+W = F2
F2 - F 1 = W
P2 A- P1 A = Ahρg
P2 - P1 = hρg
If point 1 is shifted to top of the fluid which is open to the atmosphere then P 1 = Pa, where Pa is atmospheric
pressure. P2=P, pressure at a depth h from surface of liquid.
∴ P –Pa = ρgh.

P = Pa + ρgh

P = Pa + ρgh

Note:
1. The liquid pressure is same at all points at the same horizontal level.
2. Pressure at any point inside the fluid depends on the depth h.
3. Pressure of the fluid depends on the density of the fluid.
4. Pressure does not depend on the cross sectional area of the vessel.

Hydrostatic paradox:

A B C
Consider three vessels A, B and C of different shapes. All the vessels are having same base area and all
of them filled with water to the same height. The pressure at the base of each vessel is same, regardless of the
shapes of the vessels since pressure depends on only height and independent on size and shape of the
containing vessel. This is contradictory to common sense because the three vessels are of different shapes and
hold different amounts of water. This is known as hydrostatic paradox.

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Atmospheric pressure:
The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth is called the earth's atmosphere and the pressure exerted
by the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. Its value on the surface of the earth at sea level is nearly
1.013  10 5 N / m 2 or Pascal in S.I., other practical units of pressure are atmosphere, bar and torr (mm of Hg)
1atm  1.01 105 Pa  1.01bar  760 torr
The atmospheric pressure is maximum at the surface of earth and goes on decreasing as we move up
into the earth's atmosphere.
Gauge pressure:
The pressure difference between hydrostatic pressure P and atmospheric pressure P0 is called gauge pressure.
P  P0  hg
Mercury Barometer:
It is a long glass tube closed at one end and filled with
mercury is inverted into a dish of mercury. The space above the
mercury column in the tube contains vacuum hence pressure is zero
at top of the mercury column.
The pressure inside the column at point A must equal the
pressure at point B, which is at the same level.
Pressure at B = atmospheric pressure = Pa = hg
For a mercury barometer, h = 76cm = 0.76m,  = 13.6×103 kgm-3,
Therefore,
Atmospheric pressure, Pa = 0.76×13.6×103×9.8 = 1.013×105Pa.

Open-tube manometer:
An open-tube manometer is a useful instrument for
measuring pressure differences. It consists of a U-tube containing a
suitable liquid i.e. a low density liquid (such as oil) for measuring
small pressure differences and a high density liquid (such as
mercury) for large pressure differences. One end of the tube is open
to the atmosphere and other end is connected to the system whose
pressure we want to measure. The pressure P at A is equal to
pressure at point B.
P  P0  hg

BUOYANCY:
The upward force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is called upthrust or buoyant force and the
phenomenon is called buoyancy.
For example, a cork taken inside water experiences an upward thrust and comes to the surface.

Archimedes principle:
According to the principle, when a body is immersed partially or completely in a fluid, it loses its
weight which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
From this principle,
Apparent weight of a body = (weight of the body) – (weight of the displaced liquid).

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Law of floatation:
The law of floatation states that a body will float in a liquid if the weight of the liquid displaced by the
immersed part of the body is equal to or greater than the weight of the body.

Streamline, laminar and turbulent flow:

(1) Stream line flow: Stream line flow of a liquid is that flow in which each element of the liquid passing
through a point travels along the same path and with the same velocity as the preceding element passes
through that point.
A streamline may be defined as the path, straight or
curved, the tangent to which at any point gives the
direction of the flow of liquid at that point.
The two streamlines cannot cross each other and the
greater is the crowding of streamlines at a place, the
greater is the velocity of liquid particles at that place.
Path ABC is streamline as shown in the figure and v1 ,
v 2 and v 3 are the velocities of the liquid particles at A, B
and C point respectively.

(2) Laminar flow: If a liquid is flowing over a horizontal surface with a steady flow and moves in the form
of layers of different velocities which do not mix with each other, then the flow of liquid is called laminar flow.
In this flow, the velocity of liquid flow is always less than the critical velocity of the liquid. The laminar
flow is generally used synonymously with streamlined flow.

(3) Turbulent flow: When a liquid moves with a velocity greater than its critical velocity, the motion of
the particles of liquid becomes disordered or irregular. Such a flow is called a turbulent flow.
In a turbulent flow, the path and the velocity of the particles of
the liquid change continuously and haphazardly with time from point
to point. In a turbulent flow, most of the external energy maintaining
the flow is spent in producing eddies in the liquid and only a small
fraction of energy is available for forward flow. For example, eddies
are seen by the sides of the pillars of a river bridge.

Difference between Stream line flow and Turbulent flow:

Stream line flow Turbulent flow

1 It is a regular and order flow of liquid 1 It is irregular and disorderly flow of liquid
2 In stream line flow velocity of all the liquid 2 In turbulent flow, the velocity of all the liquid
particles is same at given point particles is different at a given point

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3 The motion of liquid particles is parallel to each 3 The motion of liquid particles is not parallel
other
4 Every liquid particle moves with a velocity less 4 Every liquid particle moves with a velocity
than the critical velocity greater than the critical velocity

Critical Velocity:
The critical velocity is that velocity of liquid flow up to which its flow is streamlined and above which its
flow becomes turbulent.
Critical velocity of a liquid flowing through a tube depends on
1. Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid
2. Density of the liquid
3. Diameter of the tube
It is given by,
𝑘𝜂
𝑣𝑐 =
𝜌𝐷

Reynolds Number:
Reynolds number is a pure number which determines the nature of flow of liquid through a pipe.
It is defined as the ratio of the inertial force per unit area to the viscous force per unit area for a flowing
fluid. It is given by,
𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜂
If the value of Reynold's number
(i) Lies between 0 to 2000, the flow of liquid is streamline or laminar.
(ii) Lies between 2000 to 3000, the flow of liquid is unstable and changing from streamline to turbulent flow.
(iii) Above 3000, the flow of liquid is definitely turbulent.
Equation of Continuity:
The equation of continuity is derived from the principle of conservation of mass.
A non-viscous liquid in streamline flow passes through a tube AB of varying cross section. Let the cross
sectional area of the pipe at points A and B be a1 and a 2 respectively. Let the liquid enter with normal velocity
v1 at A and leave with velocity v2 at B. Let 1 and  2 be the densities of the liquid at point A and B
respectively.
Mass of the liquid entering per second at A = Mass of the liquid leaving per second at B a2

a1v1 1  a2v2 2 and a1v1  a2 v2 v2

B
[If the liquid is incompressible  2  1 ] a1
1 v1
Or av  constant or a
v A
This expression is called the equation of continuity for the steady flow of an incompressible and non-viscous liquid.
It states that during streamlined flow of an incompressible and non-viscous liquid through a pipe varying
cross-section, the product of area of cross-section and the normal fluid velocity (av) remains constant
throughout the flow.

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(1) The velocity of flow is independent of the liquid (assuming the liquid to be non-viscous)
(2) The velocity of flow will increase if cross-section decreases and vice-versa.
That is why:
(a) In hilly region, where the river is narrow and shallow (i.e., small cross-section) the water current will be
faster, while in plains where the river is wide and deep (i.e., large cross-section) the current will be slower, and
so deep water will appear to be still.
(b) When water falls from a tap, the velocity of falling water under the action of gravity will increase with
distance from the tap (i.e., v2  v1 ). So in accordance with continuity equation the cross section of the water
stream will decrease (i.e., A2  A1 ), i.e., the falling stream of water becomes narrower.

Energy of a Flowing Fluid:

A flowing fluid in motion possesses the following three types of energy
Pressure Energy: It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure. It is the measure of work done
in pushing the liquid against pressure without imparting any velocity to it.
 Pressure energy of the liquid PV.
P
 Pressure energy per unit mass of the liquid .

 Pressure energy per unit volume of the liquid P.

Potential energy: It is the energy possessed by liquid by virtue of its height or position above the surface of
earth or any reference level taken as zero level.
 Potential energy of the liquid mgh.
 Potential energy per unit mass of the liquid gh.
 Potential energy per unit volume of the liquid gh .

Kinetic energy: It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its motion or velocity.
1
 Kinetic energy of the liquid mv 2
2
1
 Kinetic energy per unit mass of the liquid v 2
2
1
 Kinetic energy per unit volume of the liquid v 2
2

Bernoulli's Principle:
According to this principle the total energy (pressure energy, potential energy and kinetic energy) per
unit volume of an incompressible and non-viscous fluid in steady flow through a pipe remains constant
throughout the flow.
Mathematically,

1 2
P  gh  v  Constant
2

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Proof:
Consider a liquid flowing steadily through a tube of non-uniform area of cross-section as shown in fig. If
P1 and P2 are the pressures at the two ends of the tube respectively, work done in pushing the volume V of
incompressible fluid from point B to C through the tube will be
W  P1V  P2V  ( P1  P2 )V … (i)
This work is used by the fluid in two ways.
(a) In changing the potential energy of mass m from mgh1
to mgh2,
i.e., U  mg(h2  h1 ) … (ii)
1 1
(b) In changing the kinetic energy from mv12 to mv22 ,
2 2
1
i.e., K  m(v22  v12 ) … (iii)
2
Now as the fluid is non-viscous, by conservation of mechanical energy
W  U  K
1
i.e., ( P1  P2 )V  mg (h2  h1 )  m(v22  v12 )
2
1
P1  P2  g (h2  h1 )   (v22  v12 ) [ As   m / V ]
2
1 1
P1  gh1  v12  P2  gh2  v22
2 2
1 2
P  gh  v  Constant
2
This equation is the so called Bernoulli's equation and represents conservation of mechanical energy in case of
moving fluids.
(i) Bernoulli's theorem for unit mass of liquid flowing through a pipe can also be written as:
P 1
 gh  v 2  Constant
 2
P v2
(ii) Dividing above equation by g we get h = constant
g 2g
P v2
Here is called pressure head, h is called gravitational head and is called velocity head. From this
g 2g
equation Bernoulli's theorem can be stated as.
“In stream line flow of an ideal liquid, the sum of pressure head, gravitational head and velocity head of
every cross section of the liquid is constant.”

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Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem:

Venturimeter : It is a device based on Bernoulli's theorem used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid
through pipes.
It consists of two identical coaxial tubes X and Z connected by a narrow co-axial tube Y. A manometer
mounted to the tubes X and Y to measure the pressure of the flowing liquid.
When the liquid flows in the tube XYZ, the velocity of flow in part Y will be larger than in the tube X or Z.
So the pressure in part Y will be less than that in tube X or Z. By measuring the pressure difference between X
and Y, the rate of flow of the liquid in the tube can be calculated.
Let a1 and a2 are area of cross section of tube X and Y respectively
v1 , v2  Velocity of flow of liquid through X and Y respectively
P1 , P2  Liquid pressure at X and Y respectively
 P1  P2  h m g … (i) [  m = density of mercury]
From Bernoulli's theorem for horizontal flow of liquid
1 1
P1  v12  P2  v22
2 2
1
P1  P2   (v 22  v12 ) … (ii)
2
1 1  a2 
From (i) and (ii) h m g   (v22  v12 ) = v12  12 1
2 2  a2 
[As a1v1  a2v2 ]
2h m g
 The rate of flow of liquid, Q  a1v1  a1a2
 (a12  a22 )
Dynamic lift on an aircraft:
The wings of the aeroplane are of the shape as shown in
fig. Due to this specific shape of wings when the aeroplane
runs, air passes at higher speed over it as compared to its
lower surface. This difference of air speeds above and below
the wings, in accordance with Bernoulli's principle, creates a
pressure difference, due to which an upward force called
'dynamic lift' (= pressure difference × area of wing) acts on the
plane. If this force becomes greater than the weight of the
plane, the plane will rise up.

Magnus effect: When a spinning ball is thrown, it deviates from its usual path in flight. This effect is called
Magnus effect and plays as important role in tennis, cricket and soccer, etc. as by applying appropriate spin
the moving ball can be made to curve in any desired direction.
If a ball is moving from left to right and also spinning about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the
direction of motion as shown in fig. then relative to the ball, air will be moving from right to left.
The resultant velocity of air above the ball will decrease while below it increases. So in accordance with
Bernoulli's principle pressure above the ball will be more than below it. Due to this difference of pressure an
upward force will act on the ball and hence the ball will deviate from its usual path.
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Torricelli’s law of efflux:

“The efflux velocity of a liquid from an orifice is equal to velocity acquired by a freely falling body dropped
from same height of orifice”.
Consider a tank filled with a liquid of density 𝝆. An orifice of small area is at one end of wall at a height
‘𝑦2 ’ from bottom of tank. Let 𝑦1 and h are heights of liquid surface from bottom and from orifice respectively.
Let V is the velocity of liquid coming from orifice.
1
On top, the total energy per unit volume = P + × 0 + 𝜌g𝑦1 --------- (1)
2
1
At orifice, the total energy per unit volume = P + 𝜌 × V2 + 𝜌 g𝑦2 ------- (2)
2
From Bernoulli’s theorem, total energy is constant at all positions
1
∴ 𝑃 + 𝑜 + 𝑔𝜌ℎ1 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝑔𝜌ℎ2
2
1 2
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )
2
𝑣 2 = 2𝑔ℎ [∵ ℎ = 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ]
∴ 𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ
NOTE:
 The velocity of efflux is independent of the nature of liquid, quantity of liquid in the vessel and the area of orifice.
 Greater is the distance of the hole from the free surface of liquid, greater will be the velocity of efflux.

Blowing off roofs by wind storms:

During a cyclone, when a high speed wind blows over a straw or tin roof, it creates a low pressure in
accordance with Bernoulli's principle. However, the pressure below the roof (i.e., inside the house) is still
atmospheric. So due to this difference of pressure, the roof is lifted up and is then blown off by the wind.

Viscosity and Newton's law of Viscous Force.

In case of steady flow of a fluid when a layer of fluid slips or tends
to slip on adjacent layers in contact, the two layers exert tangential
force on each other which tries to destroy the relative motion between
them. The property of a fluid due to which it opposes the relative
motion between its different layers is called viscosity (or fluid friction
or internal friction) and the force between the layers opposing the
relative motion is called viscous force.
Consider the two layers CD and MN of the liquid at distances x and
x + dx from the fixed surface AB, having the velocities v and v + dv
dv
respectively. Then denotes the rate of change of velocity with
dx
distance and is known as velocity gradient.

According to Newton's hypothesis, the tangential force F acting on a plane parallel layer is proportional
dv
to the area of the plane A and the velocity gradient in a direction normal to the layer, i.e.,
dx

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dv
FA and F
dx
dv
 FA
dx
dv
or F  A
dx
Where  is a constant called the coefficient of viscosity. Negative sign is employed because viscous force
acts in a direction opposite to the flow of liquid.
dv
If A  1,  1 then  = F.
dx
Hence the coefficient of viscosity is defined as the viscous force acting per unit area between two layers
moving with unit velocity gradient.

NOTE:
 Units : S.I. system - Newton-s-m–2 or Poiseuille or decapoise.
C.G.S. system - dyne-s-cm–2 or Poise.
1 Poiseuille = 1 decapoise = 10 Poise
 Dimensional formula : [ML–1 T–1]
 Viscosity of liquid is much greater (about 100 times more) than that of gases i.e.  L   G
 With increase in pressure, the viscosity of liquids (except water) increases while that of gases is practically
independent of pressure. The viscosity of water decreases with increase in pressure.
 Difference between viscosity and solid friction : Viscosity differs from the solid friction in the respect that
the viscous force acting between two layers of the liquid depends upon the area of the layers, the relative
velocity of two layers and distance between two layers, but the friction between two solid surfaces is
independent of the area of surfaces in contact and the relative velocity between them.
 The viscosity of thick liquids like honey, glycerin, coaltar etc. is more than that of thin liquids like water.
 The viscosity of gases increases with increase of temperature, because on increasing temperature the rate
of diffusion increases.
 The viscosity of liquid decreases with increase of temperature, because the cohesive force between the
liquid molecules decreases with increase of temperature.

Stokes law:
The viscous force acting on an object moving in a fluid is directly proportional to the velocity of the
object.
Viscous force acting on a freely falling spherical object is
F = 6πrvt
Where  = co-efficient of viscosity of fluid
r = radius of the spherical object
vt = terminal velocity

Terminal velocity:
If the resultant force acting on a freely falling body is zero then the body falls with uniform velocity
instead of falling with uniform acceleration. This velocity is called Terminal velocity.

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Expression:
Consider a sphere of radius ‘r’ density ‘𝜌’ falling in a medium of density 𝜎
Forces on the sphere are
4 u Fv
i. Weight of sphere W = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌g (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
3
4 W
ii. Force of Buoyancy, u = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 σg (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
iii. Viscous force, Fv = 6 𝛱  r v (upwards)
Initially W > u + Fv
Fv increases with time and at some time, W = u + Fv i.e. net force on sphere is equal to zero and the
velocity is called terminal velocity (Vt).
W = u + Fv
4 4 VT
⟹ 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜎𝑔 + 6 Π  r vt
3 3 V
4 3
∴ 6 Π  r vt = 𝜋𝑟 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
3 Time or distance (R)
2𝑟 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
∴ 𝑣𝑡 =
9
NOTE:
 Terminal velocity depends on the radius of the sphere.
 Greater the density of solid greater will be the terminal velocity.
 Greater the density and viscosity of the fluid lesser will be the terminal velocity.
 If  >  then terminal velocity will be positive and hence the spherical body will attain constant velocity in
downward direction.
 If  <  then terminal velocity will be negative and hence the spherical body will attain constant velocity in
upward direction. Example: Air bubble in a liquid and clouds in sky.

Intermolecular Force
The force of attraction or repulsion acting between the molecules is known as intermolecular force. The
nature of intermolecular force is electromagnetic.
The intermolecular forces of attraction may be classified into two types.
Cohesive force:
The force of attraction between molecules of same substance is called the force of cohesion. This force is
lesser in liquids and least in gases.
Ex: (i) Two drops of a liquid coalesce into one when brought in mutual contact.
(ii) It is difficult to separate two sticky plates of glass welded with water.
(iii) It is difficult to break a drop of mercury into small droplets because of large cohesive force
between the mercury molecules.
Adhesive force:
The force of attraction between the molecules of the different substances is called the force of adhesion.
Ex: (i) Adhesive force enables us to write on the blackboard with a chalk.
(ii) A piece of paper sticks to another due to large force of adhesion between the paper and gum
molecules.
(iii) Water wets the glass surface due to force of adhesion.

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IPU PHYSICS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Surface Tension:
The property of a liquid due to which its free surface tries to have minimum surface area and behaves
as if it were under tension somewhat like a stretched elastic membrane is called surface tension. A small
liquid drop has spherical shape, as due to surface tension the liquid surface tries to have minimum surface
area and for a given volume, the sphere has minimum surface area.
Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the force acting per unit
length on either side of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of Imaginary line
liquid, the direction of this force being perpendicular to the line and
tangential to the free surface of liquid.
So if F is the force acting on one side of imaginary line of length L,
Then, σ = (F/L)
(1) It depends only on the nature of liquid and is independent of the area
of surface or length of line considered.
(2) It is a scalar as it has a unique direction which is not to be specified.
(3) Dimension: [MT – 2]. (Similar to force constant)
(4) S.I Units: N/m and C.G.S is Dyne/cm.
T T
Examples:
 When a greased iron needle is placed gently on the surface of water at rest, so that it
does not prick the water surface, the needle floats on the surface of water. mg
 When mercury is split on a clean glass plate, it forms globules.
Tiny globules are spherical on the account of surface tension because force of
gravity is negligible. The bigger globules get flattened from the middle but have round shape near the edges.
 When a molten metal is poured into water from a suitable height, Molten
the falling stream of metal breaks up and the detached portion of the metal

liquid in small quantity acquire the spherical shape. Wat

 Hair of shaving brush/painting brush when dipped in water spread out, er
but as soon as it is taken out, its hair sticks together.
 Rain drops are spherical in shape because each drop tends to acquire minimum surface area due to
surface tension, and for a given volume, the surface area of sphere is minimum.
 Oil drop spreads on cold water. Whereas it may remain as a drop on hot water. This is due to the fact that
the surface tension of oil is less than that of cold water and is more than that of hot water.

Surface Energy

The molecules on the liquid surface experience net downward force. So to bring a molecule from the
interior of the liquid to the free surface, some work is required to be done against the intermolecular force of
attraction, which will be stored as potential energy of the molecule on the surface. The potential energy of
surface molecules per unit area of the surface is called surface energy.

S.I Unit: Joule/m2 and C.G.S is erg/cm2.

Dimension: [MT–2].

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IPU PHYSICS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Relation between surface energy and surface tension:

If a rectangular wire frame ABCD, equipped with a sliding wire LM
dipped in soap solution, a film is formed over the frame. Due to the surface
tension, the film will have a tendency to shrink and thereby, the sliding wire
LM will be pulled in inward direction. However, the sliding wire can be held
in this position under a force F, which is equal and opposite to the force
acting on the sliding wire LM all along its length due to surface tension in
the soap film.
If T is the force due to surface tension per unit length, then F = T  2l
Here l is length of the sliding wire LM. The length of the sliding wire has been taken as 2l for the reason
that the film has got two free surfaces.
Suppose that the sliding wire LM is moved through a small distance x, so as to take the position L' M ' . In
this process, area of the film increases by 2l  x (on the two sides) and to do so, the work done is given by
W = F  x = (T  2l)  x = T  (2lx) = T  A
 W = T  A [A = Total increase in area of the film]
If temperature of the film remains constant in this process, this work done is stored in the film as its surface
energy.
W
From the above expression T  [i.e., Surface Energy = Surface tension × increase in area]
A
Or T = W [If A = 1]
i.e. surface tension may be defined as the amount of work done in increasing the area of the liquid
surface by unity against the force of surface tension at constant temperature.

Effect of temperature on Surface tension:

 On increasing liquid, surface tension of liquid will decrease.
 On increasing temperature, the cohesive forces between the molecules will decrease and hence surface
tension decreases.

Effect of impurities on Surface tension:

 If the liquid surface is contaminated by impurities, its surface tension decreases.
Ex: When oil, grease, kerosene etc. is sprayed on water surface, surface tension of water decreases.
 The added impurities are highly soluble in liquid, its surface tension increases.
Ex: When highly soluble salts like NaCl, ZnSO4 etc are mixed with water, its surface tension decreases
 If the added impurities are weakly soluble in liquid, its surface tension decreases.
Ex: When soap is mixed with water, the surface tension decreases, and washing is more effective.

Excess Pressure:
Due to the property of surface tension a drop or bubble tends to contract and so compresses the
matter enclosed. This in turn increases the internal pressure which prevents further contraction and
equilibrium is achieved. So in equilibrium the pressure inside a bubble or drop is greater than outside and the
difference of pressure between two sides of the liquid surface is called excess pressure. In case of a drop,
excess pressure is provided by hydrostatic pressure of the liquid within the drop while in case of bubble the
gauge pressure of the gas confined in the bubble provides it.

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IPU PHYSICS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Excess pressure in different cases is given below:

2
1. In case of a liquid drop, P  .
R
2
2. In case of a air bubble, P  .
R
4
3. In case of soap bubble, P  .
R
Angle of Contact:
Angle of contact between a liquid and a solid is defined as the angle enclosed between the tangents to
the liquid surface and the solid surface inside the liquid, both the tangents being drawn at the point of contact
of the liquid with the solid.
Examples:

(1)   0 o for pure water and glass,

(2)   8 o for tap water and glass,
(3)   90 o for water and silver
(4)   138 o for mercury and glass,
(5)   160 o for water and chromium.

 Its value lies between 0o and 180o.

 if  < 90o, concave meniscus and Liquid wets the solid surface.
 if  = 90o, plane meniscus and Liquid does not wet the solid surface.
 if  > 90o, convex meniscus and Liquid does not wet the solid surface.
 It is particular for a given pair of liquid and solid. Thus the angle of contact changes with the pair of solid
and liquid.
 It does not depend upon the inclination of the solid in the liquid.
 On increasing the temperature, angle of contact decreases.
 A soluble impurity increases the angle of contact.
 Partially soluble impurities decrease the angle of contact.

Capillarity:
If a tube of very narrow bore (called capillary) is dipped in a liquid, it is found that the liquid in the
capillary either ascends or descends relative to the surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is called capillarity.
Or
The property of rise or fall of a liquid due to surface tension in a capillary tube is called capillarity.
Examples of capillarity:
1. Ink rises in the fine pores of blotting paper leaving the paper dry.
2. A towel soaks water.
3. Oil rises in the long narrow spaces between the threads of a wick.
4. Wood swells in rainy season due to rise of moisture from air in the pores.
5. Plugging of fields is essential for preserving moisture in the soil.
6. Sand is drier soil than clay. This is because holes between the sand particles are not so fine as compared to
that of clay, to draw up water by capillary action.

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IPU PHYSICS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

7. Molten wax in candle rises up the wick by capillary action.

8. Due to capillary action, the water and sap(in trees and plants) rise from the roots to the stem and leaves
through capillaries formed with cells.

Ascent Formula:
When one end of capillary tube of radius r is immersed into a liquid of density ρ which wets the sides of the
capillary tube (water and capillary tube of glass), the shape of the liquid meniscus in the tube becomes concave
upwards.
R = radius of curvature of liquid meniscus.
σ = surface tension of liquid
As the pressure is greater on the concave side of the liquid
surface, so excess pressure at a point A above the meniscus
compared to point B just below the meniscus is,
2
p
R
In order to maintain the equilibrium the liquid level rises in
the capillary tube up to height h.
Pressure due to liquid column = excess pressure
2
 hg 
R
2 2 cos  r 
 h   As R 
Rg rg  cos 
NOTE: The capillary rise depends on the nature of liquid and solid both i.e. on σ, ρ,  and r.

Applications of Surface Tension:

1. The oil and grease spots on clothes cannot be removed by pure water. On the other hand, when
detergents (like soap) are added in water, the surface tension of water decreases. As a result of
this, wetting power of soap solution increases. Also the force of adhesion between soap solution
and oil or grease on the clothes increases. Thus, oil, grease and dirt particles get mixed with soap
solution easily. Hence clothes are washed easily.
2. The antiseptics have very low value of surface tension. The low value of surface tension prevents
the formation of drops that may otherwise block the entrance to skin or a wound. Due to low
surface tension, the antiseptic spreads properly over wound.
3. Surface tension of all lubricating oils and paints is kept low so that they spread over a large area.
4. Oil spreads over the surface of water because the surface tension of oil is less than the surface
tension of cold water.
5. A rough sea can be calmed by pouring oil on its surface.
6. In soldering, addition of ‘flux’ reduces the surface tension of molten tin, hence, it spreads.

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