ADVANCED COMPUTATIONAL TOOLS FOR CEMENT PLANTS

By:
Dr. S. Suhail. Akhtar, Process Engineering Manager, Holcim (US) Inc.
And
Dr. Tahir Abbas and Professor F. C. Lockwood, Cinar Ltd, UK

Abstract
This paper describes the application of mathematical modelling, in particular computational fluid dynamics
(CFD), to solve fluid flow, heat transfer, combustion and emissions problems for the cement industry.
Whereas traditional physical modelling is limited to isothermal gas phase aerodynamics studies, CFD
handles chemical reaction, convective and thermal radiation heat transfer, and the particle/gas flow
interactions. In this paper, a new mineral interactive version (MI-CFD) is presented, in which mineral
reactions are directly coupled to the flow, heat transfer and combustion processes. The procedure has
been applied to over 100 plants worldwide. Example applications to cyclone, calciner and emissions-
reduction problems are described herein. Very significant benefits to the cement industry have resulted in
terms of fuel costs savings, reduced capital costs, increased production, the ability to comply with
environmental legislation and the securing of environmental permits. MI-CFD has proven its value to both
old and contemporary plants, including those under design/construction, where unconventional fuels or
innovative pyro-processing arrangements have posed major engineering challenges. A specially-devised
simpler mathematical model, enabling the effects of changing daily operational parameters to be forecast,
is also described.

Introduction
The cement industry is increasingly focused on reducing costs through the use of alternative fuels and
raw materials (AFR). Alternative fuels, comprised of a wide variety of ‘opportunity fuels’ and
characterised by a very broad range of physical and chemical properties, are being consumed within the
cement industry. Waste wood chips, tyre chips, whole tyres, plastic disks, diaper cubes, liquid waste and
oils are all examples. Their use at a particular plant depends on their availability and transportation costs
as well as federal and state regulations. They are mostly co-fired with conventional fuels, within either the
kiln or the precalciner, in various quantities and combinations. The factors restricting the quantity fired all
relate to plant performance and product quality. Above a limiting value, further substitution of
conventional fuels with AF’s can lead to increased sulphur cycles, increased build-ups, loss of refractory
coating due to localised hot-spots, increased pollutant emission and unstable kiln operation.

Optimised fuel combinations and feed rates for alternative fuels are determined by a thorough
understanding of the combustion aerodynamics, fuel and hot meal particles residence times and the
identification of potential build-up areas. In the past, physical models based on air/water and/or acid/alkali
mixing were employed to interpret mixing patterns and seek design process optimisation. These
techniques have certainly assisted the cement industry for conventional fuels and simpler kiln/precalciner
arrangements. However, physical models suffer from lack of generality. This is because a multitude of
scaling, or similarity, parameters are relevant. Their values must remain constant between the model and
the full-scale equipment for similarity to be respected. However, this is only ever possible for one or two
parameters, the values of the others being at best fudged. So for example, the simulation of the influence
of combustion, density variations and the presence of a particulate phase is only partial. As a result,
several ‘translating’ steps are involved in the interpretation of a full size system being operated at intense
temperature, varying regions of density, pressure and buoyancy, which need to be adjusted using
empirical relations. As cement plants have become more complicated, recently and most notably through
the introduction of additional fuel streams, the generality defect of physical modelling has been
exacerbated.

978-1-4244-2081-0/08/$25.00 © 2008 IEEE

Advanced mathematical modelling based computational fluid dynamics (CFD), initially developed and
tested for rather simple applications, have matured to tackle such complicated flows as those in internal
combustion engines and gas turbines and they are now finding their way into cement industry {1,2}. They
have shown enormous potential for solving some of very complicated combustion and emissions issues
of that industry {3,7}.

The cement industry is technically very complex with several time dependent and interrelated processes
taking place simultaneously. Traditionally, any detailed mathematical modelling solution was perceived
as too difficult and the experienced plant engineer would favour approaches that are more practical.
However, through close industrial interactions, complicated problems may be sub-divided into more
manageable ones and handled using CFD, provided only that the boundary conditions are available.
During the last fifteen years, with many cement companies and more recently with Holcim (US) Inc., Cinar
Ltd has managed to successfully develop and validate its in-house combustion interactive models to
include mineral reactions (MI-CFD) to resolve some of the most difficult AFR issues faced by the industry.
These challenges embrace: cyclone pressure drop and dust collection efficiency, kiln-burner and
precalciner performance with alternative fuels substitution and the reduction of total energy consumption,
emissions of CO, SO2, NOx and build-ups.

Introduction to the Mathematical Model

A simplified mathematical model of a precalciner/kiln would be based on empirical relationships to
describe the physical and chemical processes, therefore avoiding the solution of the complex differential
equations governing the behaviour of the fluids and raw materials. Simple models are useful in
determining the overall heat and mass balances, sulphur and alkali cycles as well as establishing global
plant performance. A detailed CFD model is required to solve the complex partial differential equations,
which govern the fluid flow, heat transfer and combustion. Among other process details, CFD enables the
identification of the fuel and air mixing regimes, hot and fuel rich regions, gas/particles recirculation and
build-up areas as well as pollutant species formation and reductions conditions.

The three-dimensional partial differential equations of the detailed models are far too complex to be
solved analytically, even by the world’s greatest mathematicians. So until the widespread arrival of the
modern digital computer in the 1970’s, they remained an academic curiosity. In parallel with the advent of
the computer, numerically-based solution techniques were developed for these equations. The first
applications were in the aerospace industry, but with the passing of time their use has progressively
spread across virtually the whole of the industrial spectrum. Their application to base industry reacting
flows and pollutant emissions commenced in the 1980s. The current development emphasis in this
sector is on the introduction of inhomogeneous waste fuels and pollutant emissions.

A multi-fuel computational fluid dynamics code has been specifically developed to take into account any
number and combinations of gaseous/liquid and solid fuels (i.e., RDF, ASR, SS, WW, MBM, MSW,
1
WTC) , a unique model feature, see Fig. 1. Briefly, the mathematical model is formulated for steady
incompressible high Reynolds number flows. The numerical solution of the governing equations is
achieved through the discretisation of the flow domain by cylindrical/Cartesian or unstructured
geometrical mesh types, as required. The ‘two-equation eddy viscosity closure’ is used to model the
turbulence transport terms, where the turbulence viscosity and the eddy diffusivity are obtained in terms
of the turbulence kinetic energy, k, and its dissipation rate, ε, determined from their modeled transport
equations. The conserved scalar approach is used to model the combustion, where the chemical
reactions between the element species admitted from initially segregated streams is considered to be
governed by the mixing pattern of the streams. The thermo-chemical state of the flow is then related to a
strictly conserved scalar, f, the mixture fraction, in the form of state relations: the chemical state equations
of the combustion model, the state equations for static enthalpy, and the perfect gas law. The chemical

1
Refused derived fuel, automotive shredder residue, sewage sludge, waste wood, meat and bone mill, municipal
solid waste, waste tyre chips
state relations are estimated assuming a binary single-step fast reaction for the fuel element
disappearance, which results in a set of piecewise linear functions in mixture fraction space. The
consideration of multiple fuel firing gives rise to multiple mixture fractions, hence Fig.1, which portrays the
co-firing of two fuels.

To account for the radiation heat transfer within the flow domain, additional balance equations are solved
for the enthalpy and radiation fields. In the computational scheme, the thermal radiation transfer is
determined by the ‘discrete transfer’ procedure. Various combustion model and associated volatile release
constants are used for the divers fuel types. For the combustion of waste tire chips, a ‘layered burnout’
approach is devised where the thermal decomposition is considered to occur within a small region which
has attained by conduction the volatile release temperature. This layer progresses inward as the chip
decomposes. Shape factors are employed to characterize the irregular shapes of tire chips.

The thermal decomposition/calcination of the hotmeal is simulated using one of the shrinking core,
random pore, particle reaction or single reaction models. The rotary kiln prediction method is based on a
technique where the combustion calculations and the heat transfer from the flame are dynamically linked
with a procedure that computes the cement chemistry and which provides the thermal boundary
conditions for the combustion calculations. The cement clinker formation routine is based on the
reactions between the species: H2O, CaCO3, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, C2S, C3S, C3A, C4AF,
through the following reactions:

CaCO 3 → CaO + CO 2
2CaO + SiO 2 → C 2S
3CaO + Al 2 O 3 → C 3 A
4CaO + Al 2 O 3 + Fe 2 O 3 → C 4 AF
CaO + C 2S → C 3S

The calcination reaction consumes the majority of the heat required to produce the clinker and liberates
significant amounts of CO2, all of which is modelled by the combustion/process interactive calculation. By
way of further predictive refinement, the local heat loss from the kiln to the surroundings is calculated
using the inner and outer kiln walls and ambient temperatures.

SOME MI-CFD APPLICATIONS

Drop-out chamber
Figure 2(a) shows a drop-out chamber at Holcim’s Midlothian, Texas plant, which was allowing excessive
dust carry over. Panels (b), (c) and (d) of the figure show suggestions for design modifications proposed
by the plant personnel, all of which involve internal baffle arrangements. The quantity, k, is here the
pressure loss coefficient and the efficiency factor, η, denotes the mass percentage of particle fallout. It is
clear that proposal (b) offers the best combination of optimal capture and minimal pressure loss.

Calciner firing of an alternative fuel

Figure 3 shows the design of Holcim’s Portland, Colorado plant calciner. The desire was to increase the
feed rate of tyre chips in the precalciner, but when this was attempted there was excessive fallout of
unburnt tire chips through the riser and into the kiln inlet leading to build-up problems. The calciner was
modelled using the unstructured MI-CFD (Fig.4). Fallout was virtually eliminated by reducing the riser
cross-sectional area sufficient to levitate the tire material. It was proposed that the tire injection location
should be raised by some 12 metres, accompanied by a re-distribution of the tertiary air supply, to
promote early devolatilisation of the tire material and so ensure chip levitation. The injection rate has so
far been increased from 20 to 50% of the calciner thermal input, with further potential to be realised.

Calciner firing with various alternative fuels

Figures 5-6 show Holcim’s Devil’s Slide, Utah plant’s low-NOx pre-calciner. This unit is fired with
pulverised coal from burners in both the riser and tertiary air ducts. Tire chips and diaper cubes are
injected into the riser duct whereas wood chips and plastic disks are burned in the tertiary air duct.
However, it was observed that a larger proportion of the tire chips and a smaller fraction of the diaper
cubes dropped down into riser and tertiary air ducts. The blockage problem was more severe in the
tertiary air duct due to the proximity of a bend. Through the exploration of several possible remedies, a
final solution was achieved using detailed MI-CFD calculations that traced the source of the problem to an
aerodynamic defect at the join between the riser and the tertiary air duct. This was simply remedied by
the judicious positioning of refractory. Tire and diaper feed rates have been increased without problems
from about 40% to almost 50% of the calciner thermal input. MI-CFD simulations have also shown that
additional coal fuel substitution can be successfully effected in this calciner through the injection of
plastics and wood chips into the TAD without risk of fallout and blockage difficulties.

NOx and CO emission reductions by switching from direct to indirect firing arrangement

Figures 7-9 show the simulated results of a (Holcim) long wet-kiln fired with coal, natural gas and whole
tires (mid-kiln injection) in proportions of 75, 3 and 22 %of the total thermal input%, respectively. The
project objective was to provide assistance to the plant in support of its permit application by
demonstrating that there would be no adverse effect on NOx and CO emissions upon switching to an in-
direct firing arrangement. The existing low-momentum mono-channel burner would be replaced with a
high-momentum multi-channel burner with a burner momentum to thermal input ratio of 9-13N/MW.

The developed model of the kiln accounted for: (a) burner secondary air inlet conditions; (b) mid-kiln
whole-tire injection including NOx reburn; (c) false air introduction through the tire gate; (d) mixing air jets
upstream of the whole tire injection location and (e) heat extraction in the chains section.

It was shown that there is NO x generation within the primary flame zone, followed by reduction in the tire
volatiles combustion zone (reburn-through CHi radicals) and finally some formation when the unburned
tire volatiles mix with the tire-door false air and fan mixing air streams. As the tire feed rate was reduced
from approximately 2 to 1.5 tires per kiln revolution, NOx emissions reduced further indicating that there is
an effective reduction through the CHi radicals as compared with subsequent NO x formation in the
burnout zone where further oxygen is available (up to a threshold below which NOx would begin to
increase again). The NO x generation within the tire volatiles combustion zone could be decreased by
reducing the tire-door false air level. The results for a flame where 3% natural gas was co-fired with coal
showed that NOx emissions were reduced due to the reduction in the ignition distance and the creation of
a shorter and more compact flame (because of the lower NO x generation rate within the size-reduced
primary flame zone). The emission of SO2 also decreased due to the lower sulphur volatility achieved
through an overall size-reduced high temperature region. Finally, it was demonstrated that NOx emission
is reduced at the kiln gas exit, by about 25% and 40% using the multi-channel burner operating at 13 and
10N/MW, respectively. It was shown that the predicted results agreed well with the measured values
(where data were available) of oxygen, temperature, carbon monoxide and NOx (Table 1).
Table 1. Comparison between predicted and measured values
at the inlet.of the long wet kiln
Exit Values Predicted Measured
o
Gas Temperature ( C) 288 266
NOx (ppm) 1049 1000
CO (ppm) 1900 2500

Real Time Forecasting and Plant Control

MI-CFD is highly sophisticated so skilled and specialist personnel are required for its effective use. Not
surprisingly perhaps, the computational run times necessary to obtain a proper simulation of something
as complicated as, for example, a calciner or a rotary kiln, are long, of the order of days. So a simplified
version of the MI-CFD programme has been developed for plant use. It simulates the whole plant and
allows an individual to forecast the likely effect of a change in an operating parameter. It also assists the
operator to find appropriate settings for multi-channel burners and even enables new burner designs to be
realised. Since, it is based on simplified modelling it cannot provide the level of detail afforded by MI-
CFD. However, it provides useful and virtually instantaneous forecasts to plant operators. For example,
using the simplified version (Fig. 10) the likely effect of a change of burner excess air or feed rate on free
lime can be predicted. In addition, the simplified version can also be linked to a ‘high-level control’
package, for the identification of effective changes to realise the desired targets.

Concluding Remarks
A brief overview of the application of an advanced computational simulation methodology, MI-CFD,
specifically developed for the cement industry, has been presented. MI-CFD simulations are based on a
fundamental mathematical resolution of the localised gas and particle velocities, temperatures and
combustion products concentrations within a pre-heater, cyclone, calciner, kiln and cooler. This level of
modelling can be used to resolve very complex plant problems relating to, for example,
air/fuel/burner/material splits, alternative fuel substitution, deposit build-ups and emission reductions.

MI-CFD modelling is, however, highly sophisticated requiring scientifically-educated, experienced and
skilled personnel if its benefits are to be fully realised. In addition, because complex three-dimensional
partial differential equations are solved, the solution procedure is iterative, taking anything from a few
hours to a few days of computer time, depending on the geometric detail and the process inputs.
Therefore, MI-CFD’s application is primarily useful prior to the introduction of proposed equipment or fuel
changes to existing plant, or during the design and planning phases of new plant. Typical benefits are the
cost-optimised identification of: suitable alternative fuels, their substitution quantities and injection
locations, burner/kiln modifications, and emissions reduction strategies.

A second type of simulation tool contrasts and compliments the detailed MI-CFD model by deploying
simplified and global mathematical relations enabling semi-skilled operators to obtain immediate plant
performance forecasts. Some calculation accuracy is inevitably sacrificed, along with the ability to predict
minor pollutant species. These deficiencies are overcome by integrating the two modelling tools to
generate an extensive supporting database.

In sum, application results from computational tools have conclusively demonstrated their value in cement
process optimisation. The cited examples conclusively demonstrate that the enhanced understanding of
the aerodynamics, combustion and associated emissions afforded by mathematical modelling enables
profitable design modifications and improved operating conditions to be identified. Over 100 applications
have shown that kiln and precalciner performance improvements of 20 to 40% can easily be realized with
emissions reduction of over 30%.
References
1. Yousif, S., Ostegaard, J. and Abbas, T. (2003). On Production Enhancement and Emissions
th
Reductions in Cement Kilns, presented at the 4 International Conference and Exhibition on
Environmental Protection in Cement and Building Materials Industries, Abu Dhabi, UAE, 19-21
October 2003.

2. Yousif, S., Ostegaard, J. and Abbas, T. (2003) CINAR-FL-Soft Produce the Next Generation of
Cement Plant Optimisation Systems, Cement & Building Materials, pp. 42, NO12-June 2003- The
AUCBM Journal.

3. Yousif, S., Abbas, T. and Lockwood, F. (2002). Mathematical Modelling of Combustion and
Cement/Lime Formation Processes in Rotary Kilns Fired with Conventional and Alternative Fuels.
th
Proceedings of the 12 International Cement Conference and Exhibition (AUCBM), Vol II, pp. 34,
th
Marrakech, Morocco, 24-27 October 2002.

4. Abbas, T., Bertrand, C., Kandamby, N., Sakthitharan, V. Siera, I., and Yousif, S (2002). On the
Prediction and Control of Industrial Combustors by Mathematical Modelling. Presented at the 2002
Australian Symposium on Combustion and The Seventh Australian Flame Days, Adelaide, February,
2002.
5. T. Abbas, F.C. Lockwood, and S. Akthar, ‘Plant performance improvement through mathematical
modelling’, ZKG International, No 12, Vol 59, p 49, 2006.

6. T. Abbas, and F.C. Lockwood, (2007):‘Enhancing the use of AFR through CFD’, Paper presented at
th
Global Fuels Conference and Exhibition, 5-6 February, London 2007

7. F.C. Lockwood, M. Mersmann, and T. Gibbons, ‘The flameless oxidation principal for improved
calciner performance’, International Cement Review, To be published, April, issue2/2008.
 α3 m *f2 f2
1

1
α3 = 1 - f 3
f st
3
α3 (1 - f 3)
f 1 f 3 st = f st
1 α3
α3 m *ox f 2 f 3 st
· α3 m *f1
· f 2 f 3 st = f st
2 α3
·
·
·
0 0
Fuel lean: Rf1 ,f2 < 1- fst3 f 1 f 3 st
f3
α3
(1 - f 3)
Fuel rich: Rf1 ,f2 > 1- fst3 1 f
1
f1 f2 f f3
st
R f 1, f 2 ≡ + =1- 3
f st
1 f st
2 f st
3 B f 1, f 2 ≡ f1 + f2 = 1 - f3
f st
3

Figure 1: 2-D projection of a 3-D mixture fraction space for two-fuel combustion
 (a) (b)

  
k = 0.85 k = 1.65
η= 63% η= 95%

(c) (d)

 
k = 2.67 k = 4.15
η= 78% η=98%

Figure 2: Performance calculations of a dust drop-out chamber

Figure 3: Portland Calciner
 Tyre injection

Meal
injection

Tertiary air

Coal Burner
Tertiary air

Meal

Existing configuration Modified Geometry

Figure 4. Flow aerodynamics of Precalciner

Figure 5: Devil’s Slide
Coal Tyre Plastic Disc Diaper Wood Chips

Figure 6. Trajectories of solid fuels

 T
1500
1426.32
1352.63
1278.95
1205.26
1131.58
1057.89
984.211
910.526
836.842
763.158
689.474
615.789
542.105
468.421
Estimated Flame Length: 20-25 m 394.737
321.053
247.368
Ignition distance: 1.5-2 m 173.684
100

Exit NOx: 1049 ppm

Temperature contours in °C, along the vertical plane through the

axis of the kiln

Figure 7. Temperatures in the long wet-kiln with whole tire injection

 MCO
100000
95875
91750
87625
83500
79375
75250
71125
67000
62875
58750
54625
50500
46375
42250
38125
34000
29875
25750
21625
17500
13375
9250
5125
CO contours, along the vertical plane through the axis of the kiln 1000

Figure 8. CO concentrations (Vppm) in the long wet kiln with whole tire injection
 MNO
0.0016
0.00151579
0.00143158
0.00134737
0.00126316
0.00117895
0.00109474
0.00101053
0.000926316
0.000842105
0.000757895
0.000673684
0.000589474
0.000505263
0.000421053
0.000336842
0.000252632
0.000168421
8.42105E-05
0

NO contours (mass fraction)

Figure 9. NO concentrations (mass fractions) in the long wet kiln with whole tire injection
Figure 10. A typical ‘window’ of the complete plant simulator ‘Socrates’