Fluids Chapter Summary

Chapter 11 Fluids
Chapter 11
FLUIDS
PREVIEW
A fluid is any substance that flows, typically a liquid or a gas. Hydrostatics is the study of
fluids at rest, such as the pressure of a fluid at a particular depth, or the buoyant force
acting on an object in a fluid. Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force acting on
an object in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object
Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion. As a fluid flows through a pipe, the flow
rate through the cross section is the same at any point in the pipe. Bernoulli’s equation
relates static pressure of a fluid to its dynamic (moving) pressure.
The content contained in sections 1 – 4, 6 – 10, and 12 of chapter 11 of the textbook is

included on the AP Physics B exam.
QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
absolute pressure
the total static pressure at a certain depth in a fluid, including the pressure at the
surface of the fluid
Archimedes principle
the buoyant force acting on an object in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object
Bernoulli’s principle
the sum of the pressures exerted by a fluid in a closed system is constant
density
the ratio of the mass to the volume of a substance
flow rate continuity
the volume or mass entering any point must also exit that point
fluid
any substance that flows, typically a liquid or a gas
gauge pressure
the difference between the static pressure at a certain depth in a fluid and the
pressure at the surface of the fluid
hydrodynamics
the study of fluids in motion
hydrostatics
the study of fluids at rest
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Chapter 11 Fluids
ideal fluid
a noncompressible, nonviscous fluid which exhibits steady flow, that is, the
velocity of the fluid particles is constant
liquid
substance which has a fixed volume, but retains the shape of its container
pressure
force per unit area
the SI unit for pressure equal to one newton of force per square meter of area
Equations and Symbols
F where
P=
A
m P = pressure
ρ= F = force perpendicular to a surface
V A = area
Pdepth = P0 + ρgh ρ = density
FB = W fluid = ρgV fluid m = mass
V = volume
ρ1 A1v1 = ρ 2 A2 v 2 (mass flow rate) F B = buoyant force
A1v1 = A2 v 2 (volume flow rate) W = weight
1 1 g = acceleration due to gravity
P1 + ρv1 2 + ρgy1 = P2 + ρv 2 2 + ρgy 2 v = speed or velocity
2 2
y = height above some reference level
Ten Homework Problems

Chapter 11 Problems 21, 36, 39, 50, 52, 59, 61, 65, 77, 87
DISCUSSION OF SELECTED SECTIONS
11.1 - 11.2 Mass Density, and Pressure
The mass density ρ of a substance is the mass of the substance divided by the volume it
occupies:
m
ρ=
V
A fluid is any substance that flows and conforms to the boundaries of its container. A
fluid could be a gas or a liquid; however on the AP Physics B exam fluids are typically
liquids which are constant in density. An ideal fluid is assumed
137
Chapter 11 Fluids
• to be incompressible (so that its density does not change),

• to flow at a steady rate,
• to be non-viscous (no friction between the fluid and the container through which
it is flowing), and
• flows irrotationally (no swirls or eddies).
Any fluid can exert a force perpendicular to its surface on the walls of its container. The
force is described in terms of the pressure it exerts, or force per unit area:
F
p=
A
11.3 Pressure and Depth in a Static Fluid

The SI unit for pressure is the Newton per meter squared, or the Pascal. Sometimes
pressure is measured in atmospheres (atm). One atmosphere is the pressure exerted on us
every day by the earth’s atmosphere. The relationship between one atmosphere and
Pascals is
1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
This is approximately equal to 15 lbs/in2. In mechanics, it is often convenient to speak in

terms of mass and force, whereas in fluids we often speak of density and pressure.
A static (non-moving) fluid produces a pressure within itself due to its own weight. This
pressure increases with depth below the surface of the fluid. Consider the containers of
water with the surface exposed to the earth’s atmosphere.
p1 p1 p1
h h h
p2 p2 p2
The pressure p 1 on the surface of the water is 1 atm, or 1.013 x 105 Pa. If we go down to
a depth h below the surface, the pressure becomes greater by the product of the density of
the water ρ, the acceleration due to gravity g, and the depth h. Thus the pressure p 2 at this
depth is
p 2 = p1 + ρgh
In this case, p 2 is called the absolute pressure. The difference in pressure between the
surface and the depth h is
p 2 − p1 = ρgh
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Chapter 11 Fluids
This difference in pressure is called the gauge pressure. Note that the pressure at any
depth does not depend of the shape of the container, only the pressure at some reference
level (like the surface) and the vertical distance below that level.
11.6 Archimedes Principle
Archimedes principle allows us to calculate the buoyant force acting on an object in a

fluid. The buoyant force is the upward force exerted by the fluid on the object in the
fluid, and is equal to the weight of the fluid which is displaced by the object. For
example, if a floating object displaces one liter of water, the buoyant force acting on the
object is equal to the weight of one liter of water, which is about 10 N.
The buoyant force acting on an object in a fluid can be found by the equation
Fbuoyant = ρ gV fluid displaced
where ρ is the density of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and V is the
volume of the displaced fluid. If the buoyant force acting on an object in a fluid is equal
to the weight of the object, the object will float.
Example 1
3m
A large container of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m3 ) contains a thin, light plate at a depth of 3 m
below the surface of the water. Neglect the mass and volume of the thin plate. The plate
can be elevated by a jack without disturbing the water in the container.
(a) What is the gauge pressure at the depth of the plate?
(b) What is the absolute pressure at the depth of the plate?
139
Chapter 11 Fluids
A solid aluminum cylinder (ρ = 2700 kg/m3 )

of radius 0.25 m and height 1 m is lowered by
a cable in the water until half the cylinder is
beneath the surface of the water where it 3m
remains at rest.
(c) What is the tension in the cable?
(d) The cylinder is then lowered onto the light plate, and the cable is removed. Find the
force exerted by the plate on the cylinder if the jack lifts the plate upward at
i. a constant speed of 2 m/s

ii. an acceleration of 1 m/s2.
3m
Solution
( )( )
(a) p gauge = ρgh = 1000 kg / m 3 10 m / s 2 (3 m ) = 3 x10 4 Pa
( )( )
(b) p 2 = p1 + ρgh = 1.013 x10 5 Pa + 1000 kg / m 3 10 m / s 2 (3 m ) = 1.313 x10 5 Pa
(c) The tension in the cable is equal to the weight of the cylinder minus the buoyant force
acting on the cylinder.
FT = m Al g − ρgVdisplaced water
FT = (ρ AlV Al )g − ρgVdisplaced water
The volume of the aluminum is
V Al = πr 2 h = π (0.25 m ) (1 m ) = 0.20 m 3
2
The volume of the displaced water is half of the volume of the aluminum, or 0.10 m3 .
Substituting the known values into the equation for the tension, we get
FT = 4400 N
(d) i. For the jack to lift the aluminum cylinder it must apply a force equal to the apparent
weight of the cylinder.
F = mg − FBuoyant = (ρ AlV Al )g − ρgVdisplaced water = gV (ρ Al − ρ water )
( )( )(
F = 10 m / s 2 0.20 m 3 2700 kg / m 3 − 1000 kg / m 3 )
F = 3400 N
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Chapter 11 Fluids
ii. Drawing the free-body diagram for the cylinder:

FB FP
FP + FB − mg = ma
FP = − FB + mg + ma
a
where the mass of the aluminum cylinder is ρ Al V Al = 540 kg.

Then
FP = − ρgVdisplaced water + mg + ma mg
Substituting, we get
FP = 3940 N
11.8 The Equation of Continuity
Consider a fluid flowing through a tapered pipe:

A1
A2
v1 v2
The area of the pipe on the left side is A 1 , and the speed of the fluid passing through A 1 is
v 1 . As the pipe tapers to a smaller area A 2 , the speed changes to v 2 . Since mass must be
conserved, the mass of the fluid passing through A 1 must be the same as the mass of the
fluid passing through A 2 . If the density of the fluid is ρ 1 , and the density of the fluid at A 2
is ρ 2 , the mass flow rate through A 1 is ρ 1 A 1 v 1 , and the mass flow rate through A 2 is
ρ 2 A 2 v 2 . Thus, by conservation of mass,
ρ1 A 1 v1 = ρ2 A 2 v2
This relationship is called the equation of continuity. If the density of the fluid is the same
at all points in the pipe, the equation becomes
A 1 v1 = A 2 v2
The product of area and the velocity of the fluid through the area is called the volume
flow rate.
141
Chapter 11 Fluids
11.9 and 11.10 Bernoulli’s Equation and Applications of Bernoulli’s

Equation
Recall that in the absence of friction or other nonconservative forces, the total mechanical
energy of a system remains constant, that is,
U1 + K1 = U2 + K2
mgy 1 + ½ mv 1 2 = mgy 2 + ½ mv 2 2
Bernoulli’s principle states that the total pressure of a fluid along any tube of flow
remains constant. Consider a tube in which one end is at a height y 1 and the other end is
at a height y 2 :
v2
v1
y1
y2
Let the pressure at y 1 be p 1 and the speed of the fluid be v 1 . Similarly, let the pressure at
y 2 be p 2 and the speed of the fluid be v 2. If the density of the fluid is ρ, Bernoulli’s
equation is
1 1
p1 + ρv1 2 + ρgy1 = p 2 + ρv 2 2 + ρgy 2
2 2
This equation states that the sum of the pressure at the surface of the tube, the dynamic
pressure caused by the flow of the fluid, and the static pressure of the fluid due to its
height above a reference level remains constant. Note that if we multiply Bernoulli’s
equation by volume, it becomes a statement of conservation of energy.
If a fluid moves through a horizontal pipe (y 1 = y 2 ), the equation becomes

1 1
p1 + ρv1 2 = p 2 + ρv 2 2
2 2
This equation implies that the higher the pressure at a point in a fluid, the slower the
speed, and vice-versa. The equation of continuity and Bernoulli’s principle are often used
together to solve for the pressure and speed of a fluid, as the following review questions
illustrate.
142
Chapter 11 Fluids
CHAPTER 11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

For each of the multiple choice questions below, choose the best answer.
Unless otherwise noted, use g = 10 m/s2.
1. Gauge pressure at a certain depth 4. If the beaker, water, and the ball in the
below the surface of a fluid is equal to water are placed on a Newton scale, the
(A) the pressure at the surface of the scale will read
fluid (A) 16 N
(B) the difference between the absolute (B) 15 N
pressure and the pressure at the (C) 11 N
surface of the fluid (D) 10 N
(C) the sum of the absolute pressure and (E) 6 N
the pressure at the surface of the fluid
(D) the absolute pressure A2
A1
(E) the density of the fluid A3
2. The pressure at the surface of the

ocean is 1 atm (1 x 105 Pa). At what
approximate depth in the ocean water v3
(ρ = 1025 kg/m3) would the absolute v1
v2
pressure be 2 atm?
(A) 1 m Questions 5-6: The three sections of the
(B) 5 m pipe shown above have areas A 1 , A 2 , and
(C) 10 m A 3 . The speeds of the fluid passing
(D) 100 m through each section of the pipe are v 1 ,
(E) 1000 m v 2 , and v 3 , respectively. The areas are
related by A 2 = 4A 1 = 8A 3 . Assume the
Questions 3 – 4: A ball weighing 6 N in fluid flows horizontally.
air and having a volume of 5 x 10-4 m3 is
fully immersed in a beaker of water and 5. Which of the following is true of the
rests on the bottom. The combined speeds of the fluid in each section in the
weight of the beaker and water without pipe?
the ball is 10 N. (A) v 3 = 2v 1
(B) v 3 = 8v 2
3. The buoyant force acting on the ball is (C) v 2 = ½ v 1
most nearly (D) v 2 = 16v 1
(A) 1 N (E) v 3 = 64v 2
(B) 2 N
(C) 3 N 6. Which of the following is true of the
(D) 4 N pressures in each section of the pipe?
(E) 5 N (A) p 1 > p 2 > p 3
(B) p 2 > p 1 > p 3
(C) p 3 > p 2 > p 1
(D) p 2 > p 3 > p 1
(E) p 1 > p 3 > p 2
143
Chapter 11 Fluids
Questions 8-9:
v1=2m/s v2=6m/s
7. The large container above is filled A glass pipe containing two vertical
with water. Three small spouts near the tubes of equal size is filled with water so
bottom of the container are of equal size that the level of the water is the same in
and are initially corked. If the corks are the two pipes. Air (ρ = 1.3 kg/m3) is
removed from the spouts, which of the blown across the end of the left tube
following best represents the path of the with a speed of 2 m/s and air is blown
water stream from each spout? across the right tube with a speed of 6
(A) m/s.
8. Which of the following statements is

true of the water in the pipe as the air is
blown across the vertical tubes?
(A) The water level in each pipe does
(B)
not change.
(B) The water level on the left rises and
the water level on the right is lowered.
(C) The water level on the left is lowered
and the water level on the right rises.
(C)
(D) The water level on both sides rises.
(E) The water level on both sides is
lowered.
9. The magnitude of the difference in

(D)
pressure between the two ends of the
pipe is most nearly
(A) 40 Pa
(B) 32 Pa
(C) 24 Pa
(E)
(D) 21 Pa
(E) 16 Pa
144
Chapter 11 Fluids
Free Response Question
Directions: Show all work in working the following question. The question is worth 15
points, and the suggested time for answering the question is about 15 minutes. The parts
within a question may not have equal weight.
1. (15 points)
y1
b
c
a
y2
h
d
Note: Figure not drawn to scale.
A cylindrical-shaped pipe can carry water from a very large elevated container on the left
to a lower container on the right. The area of the wider portion of the pipe containing the
point b has a cross-sectional area A b = 7.80 x 10-3 m2 , and the narrower section of the
pipe containing both points c and d has a cross-sectional area of A c = 3.14 x 10-4 m2.
Point C is at a height of y 2 = 2 m above point d. A water valve closes the elevated
container at point a, and thus there is initially only water in the upper container, and none
in the pipe. The rectangular block in the lower container above has dimensions 10 cm x 3
cm x 3 cm and mass 0.075 kg, and it rests on the bottom of the lower container before
any water enters the lower container.
(a) If the pressure at the surface of the water is 1 atm, what is the absolute pressure at
point a which is at a depth of y 1 = 2 meters below the surface of the water in the
tank?
145
Chapter 11 Fluids
The valve at point a is opened to create an opening equal to the area of the pipe
containing the point b so that water flows from the elevated container through the pipe,
and into the lower container.
(b) Consider the pressure at points band c. At which of these points is the pressure the
least? Justify your answer.
(c) If the speed of the water at point b is v b = 6 m/s, what is the speed of the water at
point c?
(d) Determine v d , the speed at which the water initially enters the lower container.
(e) As the water level rises in the lower container, the block eventually begins to
float. What is the height h of the water level at the instant the block is lifted off
the bottom of the container, that is, the block just begins to float?
y1
b
c
a
y2
h
d
146
Chapter 11 Fluids
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS TO CHAPTER 11 REVIEW QUESTIONS
Multiple Choice
1. B
p gauge = p absolute − p surface = ρgh
2. C
The gauge pressure is the difference between the absolute pressure and the pressure at the
surface of the water:
p gauge = p absolute − p surface = 2atm − 1atm = 1 atm = 1 x 10 5 Pa
p gauge = ρgh
p gauge 1 x 10 5 Pa
h= = ≈ 10 m
ρg (
1025 kg / m 3 10 m / s 2)( )
3. E
( )( )(
FB = ρgVdisp fluid = 1000 kg / m 3 10 m / s 2 5 x 10 −4 m 3 = 5 N )
4. A
The scale will read the actual weight of the beaker, the water, and the ball, since the
buoyant force is an internal force as far as the scale is concerned.
Weight on scale = 10 N + 6 N = 16 N
5. A
According to the equation of continuity, the speed of a fluid through a pipe is inversely
proportional to the area of the pipe. Since 4A 1 = 8A 3 , 8v 1 = 4v 3 , or v 3 = 2v 1 .
6. B
According to Bernoulli’s principle, the higher the speed in a pipe, the lower the pressure
of the fluid. Since v 3 > v 1 > v 2 , then p 2 > p 1 > p 3 .
7. D
The lowest spout has the highest pressure since it is at the greatest depth. Thus, the lowest
spout will project the water the farthest.
8. C
The higher the speed of the air across the opening of a vertical pipe, the lower the
pressure in the pipe. Thus, the water in the pipe on the right will rise to fill the space and
the water in the pipe on the left will be lowered.
147
Chapter 11 Fluids
9. D
If we neglect the small difference water level between the pipes, the Bernoulli equation
1 1
becomes p1 + ρv1 2 = p 2 + ρv 2 2 . Solving for the pressure difference, we get
2 2
1 1
p1 − p 2 = ρv 2 2 − ρv1 2 = 21 Pa
2 2
Free Response Question Solution
(a) 3 points
( )( )
p a = p surface + ρgh = 1.013 x10 5 Pa + 1000 kg / m 3 10 m / s 2 (2 m ) = 1.213 x10 5 Pa
(b) 3 points
The equation of continuity states that the speed in a pipe is inversely proportional to the
area of the pipe:
Ab vb = Ac vc
Since the area at b is greater than the area at c, the speed at c is greater than the speed at
b. According to the Bernoulli equation, a higher speed at a point indicates a lower
pressure at that point. Thus, the pressure at point c is a lower than at point b.
(c) 3 points
Ab vb = Ac vc
(7.80 x10 −3
) ( )
m 2 (6 m / s ) = 3.14 x 10 − 4 m 2 vc
vc = 149 m / s
(d) 2 points
As the water enters the lower container at point d it must have the same speed as the
water at point c. The water does not separate and is not compressed as it flows through
the pipe from point c to point d, and thus keeps a constant speed between the two points.
(e) 4 points
As the lower container fills with water, there is a height h at which the water will cause
the rectangular block to float. When the water reaches this height, the buoyant force
acting on the block is just equal to the weight of the block:
FB = mg
ρgVdisp water = mg
ρg (lwh ) = mg
m 0.075 kg
h= = = 0.083 m = 8.3 cm
( )
ρlw 1000 kg / m 3 (0.03 m )(0.03 m )
148
Chapter 12 Temperature and Heat
Chapter 12
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
PREVIEW
The total internal energy of the molecules of a substance is called thermal energy. The
temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in
the substance, and gives an indication of how hot or cold the substance is relative to some
standard. The energy transferred between two substances because of a temperature
difference is called heat. Many substances expand when heated.
The content contained in sections 1, 2, 4, 6 – 8, and 11 (not including volume expansion)

of chapter 12 of the textbook is included on the AP Physics B exam.
QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
absolute zero
the lowest possible temperature, at which all molecular motion would cease and a
gas would have no volume.
calorie
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one
Celsius degree
Celsius (C)
temperature scale in which the freezing point of water is 0 and the boiling point of
water is 100 .
heat
the energy which is transferred from one body to another because of a
temperature difference
Kelvin (absolute) temperature scale
scale in which zero Kelvins is defined as absolute zero, the temperature at which
all molecular motion ceases
temperature
the property of a body which indicates how hot or cold a substance is with respect
to a standard
thermal energy
the sum of the internal potential and kinetic energy of the random motion of the
molecules making up an object
thermal equilibrium
state between two or more objects in which temperature doesn’t change
thermal expansion
increase in length or volume of a material due to an increase in temperature
149
TK = TC + 273.15 where
∆L = αLo ∆T
T K = Kelvin temperature
T C = Celsius temperature
ΔT = change in temperature
ΔL = change in length
L o = initial length
α = coefficient of linear expansion

Chapter 12 Conceptual Questions 1, 3, 5, 11, 15, Problems 9, 14, 17, 19, 21
12.1 and 12.2 Common Temperature Scales and The Kelvin

Temperature Scale
Temperature is the measure of how hot or cold a substance is relative to some standard. It
is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance. The two
temperature scales used most widely in scientific applications is the Celsius scale and the
Kelvin scale. The only difference between them is where each starts. On the Celsius
scale, the freezing point of water is 0° C, and the boiling point of water (at standard
pressure) is 100° C. The Kelvin scale has temperature units which are equal in size to the
Celsius degrees, but the temperature of 0 Kelvin is absolute zero, defined as the
temperature at which all molecular motion in a substance ceases. Zero Kelvin is equal to
- 273.15° C, so we can convert between the Kelvin scale and the Celsius scale by the
equation
T K = T C + 273
Note that we have rounded 273.15 to 273. The boiling point of water in Kelvins would be
T K = 100° C + 273 = 373 K.
12.4 Linear Thermal Expansion
When a solid is heated, it typically expands. Different substances expand at different

rates, which is why you might heat the lid of a jar when the lid is too tight. The metal lid
will expand more than the glass jar when it is heated, making it easier to loosen. Solids
undergo two types of expansion when heated: linear thermal expansion, which is the
increase in any one dimension of the solid, and volume thermal expansion, which results
in an increase in the volume of the solid. Volume expansion is not typically covered on
150
the AP Physics B exam. In the case of linear expansion, the change in length ∆L is
proportional to the original length L o and the change in temperature ∆T of the solid:
∆L = α Lo ∆T
where α is the coefficient of linear expansion.
Example 1 The ends of a copper bar and a steel bar, each of length 0.20 m, are separated
by a gap of 0.50 mm, as shown. The other ends of the bars are attached to a rigid frame
which does not expand significantly when heated. If the two bars are heated from 0° C to
100° C, determine whether or not the bars will come into contact with each other.
Gap
Figure not drawn to scale
Solution
Since the frame is rigidly attached to the floor, we can assume the expansion of each bar
is toward the other bar. Finding the change in length of each bar:
Copper:
∆L = α Lo ∆T = (17 x 10 −6 C −1 )(0.20 m )(100°C − 0°C ) = 3.4 x 10 −4 m
Steel:
( )
∆L = α Lo ∆T = 12 x 10 −6 C −1 (0.20 m )(100°C − 0°C ) = 2.4 x 10 −4 m
Adding the two changes in length, we get 5.8 x 10-4 m = 0.58 mm. Thus the 0.50 mm gap
will close and the bars will come into contact with each other.
12.6 Heat and Internal Energy
In any state of matter, the molecules are moving and therefore have energy. They have
potential energy because of the bonds between them and kinetic energy because the
molecules have mass and speed. The sum of the potential and kinetic energies of the
molecules in a substance is called the internal energy of the substance. When a warmer
substance is brought in contact with a cooler substance, some of the kinetic energy of the
molecules in the warmer substance is transferred to the cooler substance. The energy
representing the kinetic energy of molecules that is transferred spontaneously from a
warmer substance to a cooler substance is called heat energy. Heat is generally given the
symbol Q, and, since it is a form of energy, is measured in Joules (J) or calories (cal).
151

1. The average kinetic energy of the

molecules in a substance is most closely 5. A brass spring has a spring constant k.
associated with When the spring is heated, the spring
(A) heat constant will
(B) temperature (A) increase
(C) expansion (B) decrease
(D) absolute zero (C) remain the same
(E) potential energy (D) increase, then decrease
(E) decrease then increase
2. The Celsius temperature at absolute
zero is equal to
(A) 0° C 6. Which of the following statement(s)
(B) 100° C is/are true?
(C) 273° C
(D) – 273° C I. Every substance contains heat.
(E) – 100° C II. For heat to flow between two
substances, they must be at different
3. Which of the following is true of the temperatures.
Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales? III. The internal energy of a substance is
(A) Both the Celsius and Kelvin equal to the kinetic energy of the
temperature scales have negative molecules in the substance.
values.
(B) A Kelvin degree and a Celsius (A) I and II only
degree are equivalent in size. (B) II and III only
(C) A Kelvin degree is larger in size (C) II only
than a Celsius degree. (D) III only
(D) A Kelvin degree is smaller in size (E) I, II, and III
than a Celsius degree.
(E) The Kelvin scale reaches much
higher temperatures than the Celsius
scale.
4. In general, when a solid is heated, it

(A) expands proportionally to the change
in temperature
(B) contracts proportionally to the
change in temperature
(C) expands inversely proportionally to
the change in temperature
(D) contracts inversely proportionally to
the change in temperature
(E) does not expand nor contract.
152
Multiple Choice
1. B
The temperature of a substance is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules.
2. D
T C = T K – 273 = 0 – 273 = – 273° C
3. B
The Kelvin and Celsius degrees are equivalent in size, they are simply offset by 273.
4. A
In the equation ∆L = α Lo ∆T , the coefficient of linear expansion α and the initial length of the
metal L o are both constants. Thus the change in length is proportional to the change in
temperature.
5. B
A heated spring will lengthen, causing the spring to be less stiff, and the spring constant to
decrease.
6. C
Heat can only be transferred between substances of different temperatures. It is not proper to say
that a substance contains heat, but heat is the energy transferred between two substances. The
internal energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energy of the molecules in a substance.
153
Chapter 13 The Transfer of Heat
Chapter 13
THE TRANSFER OF HEAT
PREVIEW
Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection, or radiation. Conduction is the

transfer of heat through a material like a solid, in which there is no bulk movement of the
material. Convection is the transfer of heat through materials such as liquids or gases.
Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves.
The content contained in sections 1 – 3 (not including the equations) of chapter 13 of the
textbook is included on the AP Physics B exam.
QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
blackbody
a material which is a perfect absorber of heat, and also a perfect emitter of heat
convection
heat transfer by the movement a heated substance, such as currents in a fluid
conduction
heat transfer through a material, such as a solid, without bulk movement of the
material
radiation
the transmission of energy by electromagnetic waves
thermal conductor
a material through which heat can easily flow
thermal insulator
a material that conducts heat poorly

No equations from this chapter are included on the AP Physics B exam.
Ten Homework Questions

Chapter 13 Conceptual Questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 12, 14, 18, 20, 21
154

There are three ways of transferring heat from one place to another:
13.1 Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat by the bulk movement of a fluid. If the air near the
floor of a cool room is heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the air above it,
causing it to rise. As it rises, it cools, becomes more dense again, and falls toward the
floor. If the air near the floor is continually heated, the cycle will repeat itself. Water
heated in a pan is an example of heat transfer by convection, since water near the bottom
of the pan near the fire is heated, rises, cools, then falls again. If the temperature gets high
enough, the water begins to boil as it cools itself by transferring heat to the air by
convection.
13.2 Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat directly through a material, or by actual contact
between two materials. Metals are typically good heat conductors. In fact, materials
which are good electrical conductors are usually good heat conductors as well. A material
which is not a good heat conductor, like wood or air, is called an insulator. If you place
an iron skillet on a fire, heat is transferred by conduction to the handle of the skillet. If
you grasp the iron handle with your bare hand, you will feel it transfer heat to your hand
by conduction.
13.3 Radiation
Radiation is the process by which heat is transferred by electromagnetic waves. We
receive heat from the sun by radiation principally in the form of light, infrared, and
ultraviolet waves. Microwave ovens use microwaves to transfer heat to food. And if you
stand near a roaring campfire, you will feel the heat radiating from the fire in the form of
light and infrared rays.
155

1. Cooking oil is poured into an iron pan 3. The air in a hair dryer is heated by
which is heated over a flame. The heated (A) convection
oil begins rising to the top. The order of (B) conduction
heat transfers during the entire process is (C) radiation
(A) conduction, convection, radiation (D) insulation
(B) convection, conduction, radiation (E) temperature
(C) radiation,convection,conduction
(D) conduction, radiation, convection 4. As water boils, the heat transfer
(E) radiation, conduction, convection, through the water is best described as
(A) convection
2. Gases in the sun are heated and rise to (B) conduction
the surface. A boy picks up a wrench (C) radiation
which has been lying in the hot sun on a (D) insulation
summer day. The order of heat transfers (E) temperature
during the entire process is
(A) conduction, convection, radiation 5. Old houses were often built with high
(B) convection, radiation, conduction ceilings in the rooms so that they would
(C) radiation,convection,conduction be cooler in the warmer months. This
(D) conduction, radiation, convection was to take advantage of
(E) radiation, conduction, convection, (A) convection
(B) conduction
(C) radiation
(D) insulation
(E) temperature
Multiple Choice
1. E
The flame heats the pan by radiation, heat is transferred through the pan by conduction, and heat
rises through the oil by convection.
2. B
Hot gases rise to the surface of the sun by convection, heat is transferred through empty space by
radiation, and heat is transferred from the wrench to the boy’s hand by conduction.
3. C
The air is heated by a hot, glowing coil of wire which emits radiation.
4. A
The water is heated and rises to the top where it cools and sinks to the bottom again.
5. A
Warm air near the floor rises to the ceiling, leaving the space near the floor cooler.
156
Chapter 15 Thermodynamics
Chapter 15
THERMODYNAMICS
PREVIEW
Thermodynamics is the study of heat transfer. Two of the laws that govern the flow of
heat in or out of a system are called the first and second laws of thermodynamics. These
laws relate to conservation of energy, the direction of heat flow from one system to
another, and the amount of entropy (disorder) in a system. Often we analyze the energy
transfer of a system using a pressure-volume (PV) diagram.
The content contained in sections 1 – 5, 7 – 13 of chapter 15 of the textbook is included

on the AP Physics B exam.
QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
adiabatic
the expansion or compression of a gas without a gain or loss of heat.
Carnot principle
No irreversible engine operating between two reservoirs at constant temperatures
can have a greater efficiency than a reversible engine operating between the same
temperatures. Furthermore, all reversible engines operating between the same
temperatures have the same efficiency.
entropy
the measure of the amount of disorder in a system
first law of thermodynamics
the heat lost by a system is equal to the heat gained by the
system minus any work done by the system; conservation of energy
heat engine
device which changes internal energy into mechanical work
isobaric
any process in which the pressure of a gas remains constant
isochoric (or isovolumetric)
any process in which the volume of a gas remains constant
isothermal
any process in which the temperature of a gas remains constant
166
pressure-volume (PV) diagram

a graph of pressure vs. volume which gives an indication of the work done by or
on a system, and the energy transferred during a process
reversible process
a process in which both the system and its environment can be returned to exactly
the states they were in before the process occurred
second law of thermodynamics
heat flows naturally from a region of higher temperature to a lower
temperature;all natural systems tend toward a state of higher disorder
thermodynamics
the study of heat transfer
∆U = U f − U i = Q − W where
W = P∆V = P(V f − Vi )
ΔU = change in internal energy
W Q = heat
e=
QH W = work
P = pressure
TH − TC T
e= = 1− C V = volume
TH TH T = Kelvin temperature
R = universal gas constant
= 8.31 J / (mol K)
e = efficiency
Q H = input heat
T H = temperature of the hot reservoir
T C = temperature of the cold reservoir

15.1 – 15.2 Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the study of heat flow and the work done on or by a system. There
are four laws of thermodynamics, of which two appear on the AP Physics B exam by
name (1st and 2nd). However, the concepts involved in the other two (0th and 3rd) are
important to the understanding of thermodynamics as well. The zeroth law of
thermodynamics states that if two systems are in equilibrium, that is, they have the same
temperature, there is no net heat flow between them. Further, if systems A and B are each
in thermal equilibrium with system C, they must be in equilibrium with each other.
167
The third law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to reach a temperature of

absolute zero.
15.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics

As we’ve discussed in previous chapters, energy can be transformed in many forms, but
is conserved, that is, the total amount of energy must remain constant. This is true of a
system only if it is isolated. Since energy can neither go in nor go out, it has to be
conserved. A system can exchange energy with its surroundings in two general ways: as
heat or as work. The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in the internal
energy ΔU of a system is equal to the heat Q added to the system plus the work W
done ON the system:
∆U = Q + W
On the AP Physics B exam, if work is done ON a system, the system gains energy
and W is positive.
If work is done BY the system, the system loses energy and W is negative.
This convention is consistent with the energy transfers you studied in earlier chapters. If
you do work on an object, you do positive work on that object. If the object does work on
something else, we say the object has done negative work.
Note that in your textbook, W is defined as the work done ON, rather than BY the system,
in which case the equation is written as ∆U = Q – W, and the work done BY the system is
considered positive. Regardless of which convention is used, if work is done ON a
system, its energy would increase. If work is done BY the system, its energy would
decrease. Work is generally associated with movement against some force. For ideal gas
systems, for example, expansion against some external pressure means that work is done
BY the system, while compression implies work being done ON the system.
For example, if a system has 60 J of heat added to it, resulting in 20 J of work being done
BY the system, the change in internal energy of the system is ∆U = Q – W = 60 J – 20 J =
40 J.
If 60 J of heat is added to a system AND work of 20 J is done ON the system, the internal
energy of the system would increase all the more:
Change in internal energy ΔU = Heat Q added + work W done ON the system

= 60 J + 20 J = 80 J
If heat is added to a system and no work is done, then the heat lost by one element in the
system is equal to the heat gained by another element. For example, if sample of metal is
heated and then dropped into a beaker containing water, then the first law implies
Q lost by the metal = Q gained by the water
168
15.4 - 15.5 Thermal Processes, and Thermal Processes That Utilize an

Ideal Gas
We can study the changes in pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas by plotting a
graph of pressure vs. volume for a particular process. We call this graph a PV diagram.
For example, let’s say that a gas starts out at a pressure of 4 atm and a volume of 2 liters,
as shown by the point A in the PV diagram below:
P(atm)
A B
V(liters)
2 4
If the pressure of the gas remains constant but the volume changes to 4 liters, then we
trace a line from point A to point B. Since the pressure remains constant from A to B, we
say that the process is isobaric. The if we decrease the pressure to 2 atm but keep the
volume constant, we trace a line from B to C. This constant-volume process is isochoric,
or isovolumetric. If we want the gas to return to its original state without changing
temperature, we must trace a curve from point C to A along an isotherm. Note that an
isotherm on a PV diagram is not a straight line. The work done during the process ABCA
is the area enclosed by the graph, since W = P∆V. In this case the work done on the
system is positive.
Any process which is done without the transfer of heat is called an adiabatic process.
Since there is no heat lost or gained in an adiabatic process, then the first law of
thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of a system is simply equal to
the work done on or by the system, that is, ∆U = W.
169
The processes discussed above are summarized in the table below:
Process Definition PV diagram
P
isobaric constant pressure
P
isochoric constant volume
P
isothermal constant temperature
adiabatic no heat added or taken

away (ΔU = W)
Example 1 P(x105 Pa)

A B
4
E D
V(m3)
2 4
Four separate processes (AB, AC, AD, and AE) are represented on the PV diagram above
for an ideal gas.
(a) Determine the work done by the gas during process AB.
(b) Determine the work done on the gas during process AE.
170
(c) Is work done on the gas during any other process on the diagram? If so, identify
which ones and explain how you know work is done.
(d) Identify the process which could be

i. isothermal ________
ii. adiabatic ________
(e) Calculate the heat lost during the process AE.
Solution
( 5
)(
(a) W AB = P (∆V ) = 8 x10 Pa 4 m − 2 m = 1.6 x10 J
3 3
) 5
(b) There is no work done during the process AE since there is no change in volume.
(c) There is work done during processes AB, AC, and AD, since there is a change in
volume in each of these processes.
(d) i. Process AD is isothermal, since the pressure and change inversely proportionally,
and the temperature remains constant.
ii. Process AC could be adiabatic, since the pressure, volume, and temperature change,
indicating that heat may not added or removed.
(e) The heat lost during process AE is equal to the change in energy of the system during
the process.
( )( )
Q = (∆P )(V ) = 4 x10 5 Pa − 8 x10 5 Pa 2 m 3 = − 8 x10 5 J
15.7 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Entropy S is a measure of the disorder, or randomness, of a system. The greater the
disorder of a system, the greater the entropy. If a system is highly ordered, like the
particles in a solid, we say that the entropy is low. At any given temperature, a solid will
have a lower entropy than a gas, because individual molecules in the gaseous state are
moving randomly, while individual molecules in a solid are constrained in place.
Entropy is important because it determines whether a process will occur spontaneously.
The second law of thermodynamics states that all spontaneous processes proceeding in
an isolated system lead to an increase in entropy.
In other words, an isolated system will naturally pursue a state of higher disorder. If you
watch a magician throw a deck of cards into the air, you would expect the cards to fall to
the floor around him in a very disorderly manner, since the system of cards would
naturally tend toward a state of higher disorder. If you watched a film of a magician, and
his randomly placed cards jumped off the floor and landed neatly stacked in his hand, you
would believe the film is running backward, since cards do not seek this state of order by
themselves. Thus, the second law of thermodynamics gives us a direction for the passage
of time.
171
15.8 Heat Engines

A heat engine is any device that uses heat to perform work. There are three essential
features of a heat engine:
• Heat is supplied to the engine at a high temperature from a hot reservoir.

• Part of the input heat is used to perform work.
• The remainder of the input heat which did not do work is exhausted into a cold
reservoir, which is at a lower temperature than the hot reservoir.
Work
Input Heat Exhausted Heat
(High Temp (Low Temp Reservoir)
Reservoir)
In the diagram above, heat is used to do work in lifting the block which is sitting on the
piston in the gas-filled cylinder. Any heat left over after work is done is exhausted into
the low temperature reservoir. This diagram is used in Example 2 below.
The percent efficiency % e of the heat engine is equal to the ratio of the work done to the
amount of input heat:
Work
%e = x 100
QHot
Example 2
Fig. I Fig. II Fig III
In the figures above, heat is added to the cylinder in Fig. I where the gas occupies half the
total volume of the cylinder, raising it to the top of the cylinder in Fig. II. Heat is then
removed and the block is lowered so that the gas occupies ¼ of the total volume of the
cylinder. The total volume of the cylinder is 2 x 10-3 m3, and the area of the piston is
0.05 m2. The mass of the block is 2.0 kg.
(a) If the block is at rest in Fig. I, determine the pressure of the gas in the cylinder.
172
(b) It is determined that the efficiency of this heat engine between Fig. I and Fig. II is
60%. How much heat was added to the cylinder in Fig. I to cause piston to rise to the
level in Fig. II?
(c) Is the process between Fig. I and Fig. II isothermal, isobaric, or isochoric? Explain.
(d) If the temperature of the gas in Fig. I is 40º C, what is the temperature of the gas in
Fig. II?
(e) i. Between Figs. II and III,is the system acting as a heat engine or a refrigerator?
Explain.
ii. Determine the temperature of the gas in Fig. III
Solution
(a) The pressure the gas applies to the piston, block, and atmosphere is equal and
opposite to the pressure the piston, block, and atmosphere apply to the gas. Neglecting
the mass of the piston, we can write
F
P = + 1 atm =
mg
+ 1 atm =
( ) (
(2 kg ) 10 m / s 2 + 1x10 5 Pa = 1.004 x 10 5 Pa
)
A A 0.05 m 2
(b) The work done in lifting the block is

W = P∆V = (1.004 x 10 5 Pa ) (2 x10 −3 m 3 ) = 1.004 x10 2 J
1 
2 
This work done represents 60% of the heat input to the gas. Thus,
W 1.004 x 10 2 J
Qinput = = = 167.3 J
%e 0.60
and the heat exhausted is 167.3 J – 100.4 J = 66.9 J.
(c) The process between Figs. I and II is isobaric, since the pressure the block and
atmosphere apply to the piston and gas does not change during the process.
(d) For constant pressure, volume and Kelvin temperature are proportional by the
combined gas law.
T I = 40º C +273 = 313 K
VI VII
=
TI TII
1x10 −3 m 3 2 x10 −3 m 3
=
313 K TII
TII = 616 K
For constant pressure, if the volume of a gas doubles, the temperature also doubles.
173
(e) i. The system is acting as a refrigerator, removing heat from the cylinder and reducing
the volume of the gas.
ii. Since the pressure remains constant between Figs. II and III,
VII VIII
=
TII TIII
2 x10 −3 m 3 0.5 x10 −3 m 3
=
616 K TIII
TIII = 154 K
15.9 Carnot’s Principle and the Carnot Engine

The French engineer Sadi Carnot suggested that a heat engine has maximum efficiency
when the processes within the engine are reversible, that is, both the system and its
environment can be returned to exactly the states they were in before the process
occurred. In other words, there can be no dissipative forces, like friction, involved in the
Carnot cycle of an engine for it to operate at maximum efficiency. All spontaneous
processes, such as heat flowing from a hot reservoir to a cold reservoir, are not reversible,
since work would have to be done to force the heat back to the hot reservoir from the cold
reservoir (a refrigerator), thus changing the environment by using some of its energy to
do work. A reversible engine is called a Carnot engine.

1. The first law of thermodynamics is a 2. A system has 60 J of heat added to it,

form of resulting in 15 J of work being done by
(A) the law of conservation of energy. the system, and exhausting the
(B) the law of specific heat. remaining 45 J of heat. What is the
(C) the ideal gas law. efficiency of this process?
(D) the law of entropy. (A) 100%
(E) the law of conservation of (B) 60%
temperature. (C) 45%
(D) 25%
(E) 15%
174
3. The law of entropy states that 6. If 2 J of heat is added during process

(A) heat always flows spontaneously AB, and the total amount of work done
from a colder body to a hotter one. in the cycle ABCA is 3 J, how much
(B) every natural system will tend heat is added or removed during process
toward lower entropy. BCA?
(C) heat lost by one object must be (A) 2 J of heat is added
gained by another. (B) 2 J of heat is removed
(D) the specific heat of a substance (C) 1 J of heat is added
cannot exceed a certain value. (D) 1 J of heat is removed
(E) every natural system will tend (E) 3 J of heat is added
toward disorder.
7. Which of the following statements
Questions 4, 5, 6: Gas in a chamber about a Carnot engine is true?
passes through the cycle ABCA as (A) Any Carnot engine has an efficiency
shown below. of 100%.
(B) Irreversible engines have the greatest
P
B possible efficiency.
3 (C) Heat can spontaneously flow from a
cold reservoir to a hoter reservoir.
2
(D) If a process is reversible, the
1 efficiency of an engine is maximum.
C (E) All engines are reversible.
A
8. Which of the following best illustrates
1 2 3 4 V the second law of thermodynamics?
(A) a refrigerator cools warm food
4. In which process is no work done on (B) a piston in a cylinder is forced
or by the gas? upward by expanding gas in the
(A) AB cylinder
(B) AC (C) your bedroom gets cleaner as the
(C) BC week progresses
(D) CB (D) a tadpole grows into a frog
(E) CA (E) cards thrown from the top of a
stairway land in a stack in numerical
5. At which point is the temperature of order.
the gas the highest?
(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) A and B
(E) the temperature is the same at points
A, B, and C.
175
Directions: Show all work in working the following question. The question is worth 15 points,
and the suggested time for answering the question is about 15 minutes. The parts within a
question may not have equal weight.
1. (15 points)
A cylinder contains 3 moles of a monatomic gas that is initially at a state A with a pressure of 8 x
105 Pa and a volume of 2 x 10 –3 m3. The gas is then brought isochorically to state B, where the
pressure is 2 x 105 Pa. The gas is then brought isobarically to state C where its volume is 4 x 10 –
3
m3 and its temperature is 300 K. The gas is then brought back isothermally to state A.
(a) On the axes below, sketch a graph of the complete cycle, labeling points A, B, and C.
176
(b) Determine the work done by the gas during the process ABC.
(c) Determine the change in internal energy during the process ABC.
(d) Determine the temperature of the gas at state B.
(e) State whether this device is a heat engine or a refrigerator, and justify your answer.
Multiple Choice
1. A
The 1st law simply states that the energy of a thermodynamic system is constant.
2. D
W 15 J
%e = = = 25%
QH 60 J
3. E
The law of entropy states that any system will spontaneous ly go from a state of order to
disorder.
4. A
No work is done on or by the gas in process AB since there is no change in volume.
5. B
The temperature is highest at point B, since all of the energy gained is a result of heat added to
the gas without changing the volume.
6. C
2 J of heat is added in the process AB, and since 3J of work is done in the cycle, 1 J of additional
heat must have been added.
7. D
A reversible engine is always more efficient than an irreversible engine, since more energy is lost
in an irreversible engine.
8. B
In all the other choices, each system is going from a state of disorder to order.
177
(a) 4 points
B C
(b) 3 points
For the processes ABC, work is only done in the process BC:
( )(
W = P∆V = 2 x10 5 Pa 2 x10 −3 m 3 = 4 x10 2 J)
Since work is being done BY the gas, the work is considered negative on the AP Physics B
exam, and thus we would write W = - 4 x 102 J.
(c) 3 points
Heat Q is removed in process AB and work is done BY the gas in process BC, both of which
reduces the internal energy of the gas:
[( ) ( )]( )
∆U = Q + W = (∆P )V + − (P )(∆V ) = 2 x10 5 Pa − 8 x10 5 Pa 2 x10 −3 m 3 − 400 J = −1600 J
(d) 3 points
The combined gas law gives
PAV A PBVB
=
TA TB
Since the temperature at A is the same as at C, TA = 300 K. From the graph,
( )( ) (
8 x10 5 Pa 2 x10 −3 m 3
=
)(
2 x10 5 Pa 2 x10 −3 m 3 )
300 K TB
TB = 75 K
(e) 2 points
This device is a refrigerator, since it removes heat from the system.
178
Chapter 18 Electric Forces and Electric Fields
Chapter 18
ELECTRIC FORCES AND ELECTRIC FIELDS
PREVIEW
Electric charge is the fundamental quantity that underlies all electrical phenomena. There
are two types of charges, positive and negative, and like charges repel each other, and
unlike charges attract each other. A conductor is a material through which charge can
easily flow due to a large number of free electrons, whereas an insulator does not allow
charge to flow freely through it. The force between charges can be found by applying
Coulomb’s law. The electric field around a charge is the force per unit charge exerted on
another charge in its vicinity.
The content contained in sections 1 – 8, and 11 of chapter 18 of the textbook is included

QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
charging by conduction
transfer of charge by actual contact between two objects
charging by induction
transfer of charge by bringing a charged object near a conductor, then grounding
the conductor
conservation of charge
law that states that the total charge in a system must remain
constant during any process
coulomb
the unit for electric charge
Coulomb’s law
the electric force between two charges is proportional to the product of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
electric charge
the fundamental quantity which underlies all electrical phenomena
electric field
the space around a charge in which another charge will experience a force;
electric field lines always point from positive charge to negative charge
electron
the smallest negatively charged particle
electrostatics
the study of electric charge, field, and potential at rest
201
elementary charge
the smallest existing charge; the charge on one electron or one
proton (1.6 x 10-19 C)
parallel plate capacitor
capacitor consisting of two oppositely charged parallel plates of equal area, and
storing an electric field between the plates
neutral
having no net charge
test charge
the very small charge used to test the strength of an electric field
kq1 q 2 1 q1 q 2 where
F= =
r 2
4πε 0 r 2
F = electric force
F kq 1 q k = electric constant = 9x109 Nm2 / C2
E= = 2 =
q0 r 4πε 0 r 2 ε 0 = permittivity constant
= 8.85 x 10-12 C2 / Nm2
q (or Q) = charge
r = distance between charges
E = electric field

18.2 - 18.3 Charged Objects and the Electric Force, Conductors and
Insulators
Charge is the fundamental quantity that underlies all electrical phenomena. The symbol
for charge is q, and the SI unit for charge is the Coulomb (C). The fundamental carrier of
negative charge is the electron, with a charge of – 1.6 x 10-19 C. The proton, found in the
nucleus of any atom, carries exactly the same charge as the electron, but is positive. The
neutron, also found in the nucleus of the atom, has no charge. When charge is transferred,
only electrons move from one atom to another. Thus, the transfer of charge is really just
the transfer of electrons. We say that an object with a surplus of electrons is negatively
charged, and an object having a deficiency of electrons is positively charged. Charge is
conserved during any process, and so any charge lost by one object must be gained by
another object.
202
The Law of Charges
The law of charges states that like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract
each other. This law is fundamental to understanding all electrical phenomena.
Example 1
Consider four charges, A, B, C, and D, which exist in a region of space. Charge A attracts
B, but B repels C. Charge C repels D, and D is positively charged. What is the sign of
charge A?
Solution
If D is positive and it repels C, C must also be positive. Since C repels B, B must also be
positive. A attracts B, so A must be negatively charged.
Charge is one of the four quantities in physics that is conserved during any process.
Example 2
Consider two charged spheres of equal size carrying a charge of +6 C and –4 C,
respectively. The spheres are brought in contact with one another for a time sufficient to
allow them to reach an equilibrium charge. They are then separated. What is the final
charge on each sphere?
+6 -4
Solution
When the two spheres come in contact with each other, charge will be transferred, but
the total amount of charge is conserved. The total charge on the two spheres is +6 C + -4
C = +2 C, and this is the magnitude of the equilibrium charge. When they are separated,
they divide the charge evenly, each keeping a charge of +1 C.
Conductors, like metals, have electrons which are loosely bound to the outskirts of their
atoms, and can therefore easily move from one atom to another. An insulator, like wood
or glass, does not have many loosely bound electrons, and therefore cannot pass charge
easily.
18.4 Charging by Contact and by Induction

We can give an object a net charge two ways: conduction (contact) and induction. In
order to charge an object by conduction, we must touch the object with a charged object.
giving the two objects the same charge sign.
Charging by induction gives us an object charged oppositely to the original charged

object. For example, as shown in your textbook, if we bring a negatively charged rod near
a conducting (metal) sphere, and then ground the metal sphere, negative charges on the
sphere escape to the ground, leaving the sphere with a net positive charge.
203
Example 3
Show how we can begin with a positively charged rod and charge a metal sphere
negatively.
Take a moment to draw the charges on each of the objects in the sequence of diagrams
below.
++++++++ ++++++++
I II III
Solution
++++++++ ++++++++
-
- -
- + -
+ -
- + - -
+
ground
I II III
In figure I a positively charged rod is brought near a neutral metal sphere, separating the
charges in the sphere. When the sphere is grounded, the positive charges escape into the
ground (actually, electrons come up from the ground). When the rod and grounding wire
are removed, the sphere is left with a net negative charge.
18.5 Coulomb’s Law
The force between any two charges follows the same basic form as Newton’s law of
universal gravitation, that is, the electric force is proportional to the magnitude of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges.
204
The equation for Coulomb’s law is

Kq1 q 2
FE =
r2
where F E is the electric force, q 1 and q 2 are the charges, r is the distance between their
centers, and K is a constant which equals 9 x 109 Nm2/C2.
-q1 +q2
1
Sometimes the constant K is written as K = , where ε o = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 / Nm2.
4πε o
Example 4
+2 μC -4 μC
Two point charges q 1 = +2 μC and q 2 = - 4 μC are separated by a distance r, as shown

above.
(a) If the force between the charges is 2 N, what is the value of r?
(b) Where could you place a third charge q 3 = +1 μC on the horizontal axis so that there
would be no net force acting on q 3 ? Find an equation which could be solved for x, where
x is the distance from the +2 μC charge to q 3 . It is not necessary to solve this equation.
Solution
(a)
Kq1 q 2
FE =
r2
 Nm 2 
 9 x10 9 
Kq1 q 2  C2 
r= = = 0.19 m
FE 2N
205
(b) For the force on the third charge to be zero, it would have to be placed to the left of
the +2 μC charge. Let x be the distance from the +2 μC charge to q 3 . Then the - 4 μC
charge would be (x + r) from q 3.
x r
q3
+2 μC -4 μC
Kq1 q3 Kq 2 q3
F13 + F23 = + =0
x2 ( x + r )2
This equation can be solved for x.
18.6 The Electric Field
An electric field is the condition of space around a charge (or distribution of charges) in
which another charge will experience a force. Electric field lines always point in the
direction that a positive charge would experience a force. For example, if we take a
charge Q to be the source of an electric field E, and we bring a very small positive “test”
charge q nearby to test the strength and direction of the electric field, then q will
experience a force which is directed radially away from Q.
q F
Q
The electric field is given by the equation
F
E= ,
q
where electric field E is measured in Newtons per coulomb, and F is the force acting on
the charge q which is experiencing the force in the electric field. Electric field is a vector
which points in the same direction as the force acting on a positive charge in the electric
field. The test charge q would experience a force radially outward anywhere around the
source charge Q, so we would draw the electric field lines around the positive charge Q
like this:
Electric field lines in a region can also represent the path a positive charge would follow
in that region.
206
Remember, electrons (negative charges) are moved when charge is transferred, but
electric field lines are drawn in the direction a positive charge would move.
The electric field due to a point charge Q at a distance r away from the center of the
charge can also be written using Coulomb’s law:
 KQq 
 2 
E= =
F r  KQ
= 2
q q r
where K is the electric constant, Q is the source of the electric field, and q is the small
charge which feels the force in the electric field due to Q.
18.7 Electric Field Lines

Drawing the electric field lines around a charge or group of charges helps us to imagine
the behavior of a small charge place in the region of the electric field. The diagrams
below illustrate the electric field lines in the region of a positive charge and a negative
charge. Your textbook has several more diagrams showing the electric field lines around
pairs of opposite charges and pairs of like charges.
Positive charge
Negative charge
The above electric fields are not uniform but vary with the square of the distance from the
source charge. We can produce a uniform electric field by charging two metal plates
oppositely and creating a capacitor. A capacitor can store charge and electric field for
later use. We will discuss capacitors further in chapter 20.
+++++++++++++++++++
---------------------------
207
18.8 The Electric Field Inside a Conductor: Shielding

When charge is placed on a conductor, all of the charge moves to the outside of the
conductor. Consider a metal sphere. If we place positive charges totaling Q on the sphere,
they all go to the outside and distribute themselves in such a way to get as far from each
other as possible.
+ +
+ Q
+
+
+ R + r
+ +
+ +
+
Inside the metal sphere (r < R) , the electric field is zero, since all the charge is on the
outside of the sphere. Outside the sphere (r > R), the electric field behaves as if the sphere
KQ
is a point charge centered at the center of the sphere, that is, Eoutside = 2 .
r
We can graph electric field E vs. distance from the center r for the charged conducting
sphere:
r
0
R
208

1. When charge is transferred from one 4. Two charges q 1 and q 2 are separated
object to another, which of the following by a distance r and apply a force F to
are actually transferred? each other. If both charges are doubled,
(A) electrons and the distance between them is halved,
(B) protons the new force between them is
(C) neutrons (A) ¼ F
(D) quarks (B) ½ F
(E) photons (C) 4F
(D) 8F
2. Two conducting spheres of equal size (E) 16F
have a charge of – 3 C and +1 C,
respectively. A conducting wire is 5. Two uncharged spheres A and B are
connected from the first sphere to the near each other. A negatively charged
second. What is the new charge on each rod is brought near one of the spheres as
sphere? shown. The far right side of sphere B is
(A) – 4 C (A) uncharged
(B) + 4 C (B) neutral
(C) – 1 C (C) positive
(D) + 1 C (D) negative A B
(E) zero (E) equally positive and negative.
3. According to Coulomb’s law, if the

electric force between two charges is
positive, which of the following must be
true?
(A) One charge is positive and the other
charge is negative.
(B) The force between the charges is
repulsive.
(C) The force between the charges is
attractive
(D) The two charges must be equal in
magnitude.
(E) The force must be directed toward
the larger charge.
209
9. Which of the particles would not

experience a force while between the
plates?
(A) I and II only
(B) II and III only
A B (C) I only
(D) III only
6. Two charges A and B are near each (E) I, II, and III
other, producing the
electric field lines shown. What are the
two charges A and B, respectively?
(A) positive, positive
(B) negative, negative
(C) positive, negative
(D) negative, positive
(E) neutral, neutral
7. A force of 40 N acts on a charge of

0.25 C in a region of space. The electric
field at the point of the charge is
(A) 10 N/C
(B) 100 N/C
(C) 160 N/C
(D) 40 N/C
(E) 0.00625 N/C
Questions 8 - 9:
Two charged parallel plates are oriented
as shown.
The following particles are placed
between the plates, one at a time:
I. electron
II. proton E
III. neutron
8. Which of the particles would move to

the right between the plates?
(A) I and II only
(B) I and III only
(C) II and III only
(D) II only
(E) I only
210
+ +
+ Q
+
+
+ R + r
Q
+ +
+ +
+
10. An amount of positive charge Q is placed on a conducting sphere. A positive point

charge Q is placed at the exact center of the sphere and remains there. Which of the
following graphs best represents the of electric field E vs distance r from the center?
(A) (D)
E E
r r
R R
(B) E (E) E
r r
R R
(C) E
r
R
211

1. (15 points)
y
+Q
x
a 2a
P
+Q
Two charges each with charge +Q are located on the y – axis, each a distance a on either
side of the origin. Point P is on the x – axis a distance 2a from the origin.
(a) In terms of the given quantities, determine the magnitude and direction of the electric
field at
i. the origin
ii. point P
iii. a distance x on the x –axis a great distance from the origin (x >> 2a).
(b) On the axes below, sketch a graph of electric field E x vs. distance x on the +x – axis.
Ex
a 2a
212
A small ball of mass m and charge +q is hung from a thread which is attached to the
ceiling directly above the mark at a distance a from the origin. Charge +q is repelled
away from the origin and comes to rest at a point of equilibrium at a distance 2a from the
origin on the
x – axis.
y
+Q
m,
a +q
a
x
a 2a
P
+Q
(c) On the diagram below, draw a free-body diagram of the forces acting on the ball when
it is in equilibrium at point P.
(d) Determine an expression for the tension F T in the string in terms of the given
quantities and fundamental constants.
213
Multiple Choice
1. A
When charge is transferred, electrons move from one object to another.
2. C
Conservation of charge: - 3 + 1 = - 2, which is divided evenly between the two charges,
so each sphere gets – 1 C.
3. B
In the equation for electric force, two positive or two negative charges multiplied by each
other yields a positive force, indicating repulsion.
4. E
K (2q1 )(2q 2 )
F= = 16 F
1 2
( r)
2
5. D
The far right side of sphere B is negative, since the negative charges in the sphere are
pushed as far away as possible by the negative charges on the rod.
6. D
Electric field lines begin on positive charges and end on negative charges, thus A is
negative and B is positive.
7. C
F 40 N N
E= = = 160
q 0.25C C
8. D
Only the positively charged proton would move to the right, toward the negatively
charged plate.
9. D
Since the neutron has no charge, it would not experience a force in an electric field.
10. B
KQ 2 KQ
The electric field on the inside is Einside = 2
and on the outside is E outside = 2 . In
r r
both cases, the electric field follows the inverse square law.
214
(a)
i. 1 point
The electric field at the origin is zero, since a positive test charge placed at the origin
would experience no net force.
ii. 4 points
The net electric field E x at point P is equal to the sum of the x-components of the electric
field vectors from each of the two charges, since the y-components cancel.
r = a 2 + (2a )
+Q 2
a
θ θ
Ex
a 2a
P
+Q
 KQ  2a 
E x = E1x + E 2 x = 2 E cos θ = 2  2  
 r  r 
Substituting for r:
 KQ  2a 
= 2 KQa
E x = 2 2 
 a + (2a )  a + (2a )  a 2 + (2a )2 2
[ ]
2  2 2  3
iii. 2 points
If we go out to a point very far away on the x – axis where x >> 2a, the two charges seem
very close together such that they behave as one point charge of magnitude +2Q. Then
the electric field a distance x away is
K (2Q )
E=
x2
215
(b) 2 points
Ex
a 2a
(c) 3 points
FT FTy
φ FE
FTx
mg
(d) 3 points
Since the system is in equilibrium, ΣF = 0.
 
FTx = FE = qE = q  2 KQa 
and
 2
[ 2 2 
]
3
 a + (2a ) 
FTy = mg
Then
1
 
2
2
[ ]  2 KQa 2
1
FT = FTx + FTy
2 2 2
=  + (mg ) 
 3 

[
 a 2 + (2a )2 ]
2
 

216
Chapter 19 Electric Potential Energy and the Electric Potential
Chapter 19
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY AND THE ELECTRIC

POTENTIAL
PREVIEW
Work must be done to move a charge in an electric field, and the work is related to the
potential difference between two points in an electric field. A surface on which all points
are at the same potential is called an equipotential surface. Several electric charges in the
same vicinity have an electric potential energy due to their mutual attraction or repulsion.
Two equally and oppositely charged conductors, usually metal plates, which are near
each other form a capacitor, in which electrical energy and charge can be stored.
The content contained in sections 1 – 5, and 7 of chapter 19 of the textbook is included

QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
capacitor
two oppositely charged conductors used to store charge and energy in an electric
field between them
electric potential
the amount of work per unit charge to move a charge from a very
distant point to another point in an electric field
electric potential difference
the difference in potential between two points in an
electric field; also known as voltage
electric potential energy
the energy stored between two charges as a result of the electric force between
them; also equal to the energy needed to assemble two or more charges to a
separation distance r.
equipotential surface
a surface which everywhere has the same potential
farad
the unit for capacitance equal to one coulomb per volt
volt
the SI unit of potential or potential difference
217
kq1 q 2 1 q1 q 2
EPE = = EPE = electric potential energy (denoted
r 4πε 0 r
as U E on the AP Physics exam)
W AB EPE B − EPE A k = electric constant = 9x109 Nm2 / C2
∆V AB = =
q0 q0 ε 0 = permittivity constant =
kq 1 q 8.85 x 10-12 C2 / Nm2
Vr = ∑ = ∑r q (or Q) = charge
r 4πε 0
r = distance between charges
∆V ΔV AB = potential difference between
E=−
∆s points A and B
q = CV W AB = work needed to move a charge
from point A to point B
ε A
C= 0 V r = potential at a point a distance r
d away
1 1 1 Q2 from a source charge
U E = CV 2 = QV =
2 2 2 C E = electric field
Δs = displacement along a line between
two points
C = capacitance
A = area of a capacitor plate
d = distance between parallel capacitor
plates
U E = electrical energy stored in a
capacitor
where

19.1 and 19.2 Potential Energy and The Electric Potential Difference
The electric potential V is defined in terms of the work we would have to do on a charge
to move it against an electric field. For example, if we wanted to move a positive charge
from point A to point B in the electric field shown below, we would have to do work on
the charge, since the electric field would push against us.
218
+ +
+ Q
+ Work
+
B A
+ R + r
+ + qo
+ +
+
Just as two masses have potential energy due to the gravitational force between them, two
charges Q and q o have electric potential energy EPE due to the electric force between
them. We say that there is a potential difference ∆V between points A and B, and the
equation for potential difference between two points is
∆EPE − Work
∆V = = , and is measured in joules/coulomb, or volts.
qo qo
When we apply potential difference to circuits in a later section, we will often call it
voltage. If we place the charge q at point B and let it go, it would “fall” toward point A.
We say that positive charges naturally want to move from a point of high potential (B) to
low potential (A), and we refer to the movement of the positive charges as current. We
will return to voltage and current in the next chapter.
19.3 The Electric Potential Difference Created by Point Charges

As we did for the electric field, we can write the electric potential due to a source charge
Q at a distance r from the source charge:
KQ
V =
r
Unlike electric field, which is a vector quantity, electric potential is a scalar quantity,
that is, there is no direction or angle associated with potential, and potentials may be
added without worrying about components. However, the potential due to a positive
charge is positive, and the potential due to a negative charge is negative.
219
Example 1
Recall the free-response problem from chapter 18, which includes two positive charges
located on the y – axis. Let Q = 4.0 μC, and a = 0.05 m.
+Q
x
a 2a
P
+Q
Find the electric potential at

(a) the origin, and
(b) at point P.
(c) i. How much work would it take to move a positive charge q = 2 μC and
mass m = 2 x 10-3 kg from a distance very far away to the origin?
ii. If this particle were placed at rest at the origin and then displaced slightly in the x –
direction, find its speed when it is at a very large distance from the origin.
Solution
(a) Unlike the electric field, the electric potential at the origin is not zero.
 Nm 2 
2 9 x10 9 (
 4.0 x10 − 6 C
2 
)
KQ KQ  C 
Vo = Σ =2 = = 1.44 x 10 6 V
r a 0.05 m
(b) The distanced r is the hypotenuse of the triangle of legs a and 2a:
 Nm 2 
(
2 9 x10 9 2  4.0 x10 −6 C )
= 
KQ KQ C 
Vo = Σ =2 = 6.44 x10 5 V
r a + (2a ) (0.05 m ) + 4(0.05 m )
2 2 2 2
(c) i. At a very large distance from the origin, the potential is essentially zero. Thus the
work required to move this charge from a very large distance to the origin is simply the
product of the charge and the potential at the origin:
( )( )
W = qVo = 2 x10 −6 C 1.44 x 10 6 V = 2.88 J
ii. As the particle accelerates away from the origin, it essentially reaches a maximum
speed when it is a very large distance from the origin. At this distance, the work done on
the particle is equal to its kinetic energy, from which we can find the speed of the
particle.
220
1 2
Wo = KE = mv max
2
2(2.88 J )
v max = = 53.7 m / s
2 x10 −3 kg
19.4 Equipotential Surfaces and Their Relation to Electric Fields

An equipotential surface is one in which all of the points on the surface are at the same
potential. A charged conducting sphere is an example of an equipotential surface, since it
would require the same amount of work to move a charge to a point anywhere on the
surface. + +
+ Q
+
+
+ R +
+ +
+ +
+
In addition, if we placed another charge on the surface of the sphere, it would take no
work to move it around on the sphere. In order for there to be a potential difference
between two points, there must be an electric field to do work against. The electric field
is constant anywhere on the surface of the sphere.
If we draw imaginary concentric spheres around a positive charge, each sphere will be an
equipotential surface.
Equipotential
Surfaces
Note that equipotential lines are always perpendicular to the electric field lines in the
region. We would have to do work to move a charge between equipotential lines, but not
along an equipotential line.
221
Equipotential
Surfaces
-5V
C B A
0V E
+5V
Example 2
In the figure above, three equipotential lines are drawn around a charge. Line A is at a
potential of +5 V, line B is at a potential of 0 V, and line C is at – 5 V.
(a) Is the charge positive or negative? Justify your answer.
A charge of 3 μC is placed on line C.

(b) How much work is required to move the charge along line C for one circumference,
returning it to its starting point?
(c) How much work is required to move the charge along line C for half the
circumference?
(d) How much work is required to move the charge along the radius of the circles from
line C to line A?
Solution
(a) The charge in the center of the circles is positive, since the electric field lines point
outward away from the charge. We can also see that the charge is positive because the
equipotential lines become more positive as they approach the charge.
(b) It takes no work to move the charge around the circumference of circle C, since the
entire circle is an equipotential line.
(c) It takes no work to move the charge for any distance along the equipotential line C.
(d) W AC = q(V A − VC ) = (3 x10 −6 C )[+ 5V − (− 5V )] = 3 x10 −5 J
222
If we have two charged metal spheres of unequal size, we can transfer charge between
them by connecting a wire from one of them to another:
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
The charge will redistribute itself so that both spheres will be at the same potential, but
not the same charge. If the two spheres are connected by a wire, they are essentially one
surface which is at one potential, or an equipotential surface.
19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics

We can create a uniform electric field in a region of space by taking two metal plates,
setting them parallel to each other and separating them by a distance d, and placing a
voltage V (like from a battery) across the plates so that one of the plates will be positive
and the other negative.
++++++++++++++++++++++
V
E
d
-------------------------------
The positive charges on the top plate will line up uniformly with the negative charges on
the bottom plate so that each positive charge lines up with a negative charge directly
across from it. This arrangement of charges creates electric field lines which are directed
from the positive charges to the negative charges and are uniformly spaced to produce a
uniform (constant) electric field everywhere between the plates. Conducting plates which
are connected this way are called a capacitor. Capacitors are used to store charge and
electric field in a circuit which can be used at a later time.
q
The capacitance of the plates is defined as C = , where q is the charge on one of the
V
plates, and V is the voltage across the plates. The unit for capacitance is the coulomb/volt,
or farad.
223
One farad is a very large capacitance, so we often use microfarads (µF), or 10-6 F. The
capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the area of each plate and inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. In symbols,
A
C∝ .
d
The constant of proportionality which makes the proportion above into an equation is ε o ,
which is called the permittivity of free space and is equal to 8.85 x 10 – 12 C2 / Nm2. The
permittivity constant gives us an indication of how well space holds an electric field. The
equation for a parallel plate capacitor is
ε A
C= o
d
Note that the capacitance of a capacitor ultimately only depends on its geometric
dimensions, like area and distance between the plates. This is true for a capacitor of any
shape.
We can also change the capacitance of a capacitor by changing the material between the
plates. If we fill the space between the plates with oil or plastic, the capacitance will
increase. The oil or plastic is called a dielectric. Only capacitors with air or a vacuum
between the plates are included on the AP Physics B exam.
Example 3
A capacitor has a capacitance C 0 . What is the effect on the capacitance if the
(a) area of each plate is doubled?
(b) distance between the plates is halved?
Solution
(a) If the area of each plate is doubled (assuming the plates have equal area), we can find
the new capacitance by
(2) A
C∝ = 2C 0 .
d
Twice the area gives twice the capacitance.
(b) If the distance between the plates is halved, that is, the plates are brought closer
together, the new capacitance is
A
C∝ = 2C 0 .
1
d
2
Bringing the plates closer together increases the capacitance, in this case by a factor of
two.
224
The electrical energy stored in a capacitor can be found by relating its charge q, voltage
V, and capacitance C:
1 q2 1
U E = CV = 2
= qV
2 2C 2
The electric field, voltage, and distance between the plates are related by the equation
V
E=
d
It follows from this equation that the unit for electric field is a volt/meter, which is
equivalent to a newton/coulomb.
These equations are utilized in the review questions that follow.

1. Electric potential
(A) is a vector quantity.
(B) is proportional to the work done in
an electric field.
(C) is always equal to the electric field.
(D) is zero when a charge is in an
electric field.
(E) is measured in N/C.
Questions 2 – 4:
A hollow metal sphere has a radius R
and a charge Q placed on it.
2. The electric field inside the sphere is

(A) zero
KQ
(B)
r
KQ
(C) 2
r
KQ
(D) 2
R
KQ
(E)
R
225
3. The electric potential at the surface of Questions 7 - 10

the sphere is Two parallel conducting plates each of
(A) zero area 0.004 m2 are separated by a distance
KQ of 0.001 m. A 9 V battery is connected
(B) across the plates.
r
KQ
(C) 2 7. The electric field between the plates is
r
(A) 9000 V/m
KQ
(D) 2 (B) 900 V/m
R (C) 9 V/m
KQ (D) 0.009 V/m
(E)
R (E) 0.00011 V/m
4. The electric potential at the center of 8. The capacitance of the parallel plates
the sphere is is
(A) zero (A) 9.0 x 109 F
KQ (B) 4.0 x 10-12 F
(B) (C) 6.3 x 10-6 F
r
KQ (D) 3.5 x 10-11 F
(C) 2 (E) 7.0 x 1011 F
r
KQ
(D) 2 9. The charge on one of the plates is
R (A) 3.2 x 10-10 C
KQ (B) 2.1 x 10-9 C
(E)
R (C) 4.4 x 10-7 C
5. Two unequally sized metal spheres (D) 5.2 x 10-6 C
are each charged. A wire is connected (E) 9.0 x 10-10 C
from one sphere to the other. When the
wire is removed, 10. If the distance between the plates is
(A) the spheres will be equally charged doubled and the area of each plate is
(B) the spheres will have the same doubled, which of the following is true?
potential (A) Both the electric field and the
(C) the spheres will have the same capacitance is doubled
electric field at their surfaces (B) Both the electric field and the
(D) the spheres will be oppositely capacitance is quadrupled
charged (C) the electric field is halved and the
(E) all of the above are true. capacitance is unchanged
(D) the electric field is halved and the
6. Equipotential lines are always capacitance is doubled
(A) parallel to electric field lines (E) neither the electric field nor the
(B) perpendicular to electric field lines capacitance is changed.
(C) perpendicular to charged surfaces
(D) circular
(E) positive
226

1. (15 points)
+Q +Q
-Q -Q
Four charges, two positive and two negative, are arranged at the corners of a square of
sides d. Give all answers in terms of given quantities and fundamental constants.
(a) Determine the electric potential at the center of the square.

(b) Determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the center of the square.
Eight more positive and negative charges are added to the top and bottom of the square as
shown below. The lines of charge approximate a uniform electric field between them.
+10Q
-10Q
(c) On the diagram of the lines of charge above, sketch several electric field lines
between the charges.
(d) The electric field between the charges is E. Write an expression for the capacitance of
the system in terms of the given quantities and fundamental constants.
227
Multiple Choice
1. B
The higher the potential difference between two points, the more work is required to
move a charge between the two points.
2. A
All of the charge is on the outside of the conducting sphere, so there’s no charge or
electric field inside the sphere
3. E
KQ KQ
V = = at the surface of the sphere.
r R
4. E
Since there is no electric field inside the sphere, we don’t have to do anymore work after
moving our charge past the surface of the sphere. In other words, the potential from the
surface of the sphere to the center doesn’t change, because there is no electric field to
work against.
5. B
Since the spheres are not the same size they will not hold the same amount of charge, but
since they were in contact with one another, they will be at the same potential.
6. B
Equipotential lines and electric field lines must be perpendicular to each other so that no
work will be done as a charge is moved along an equipotential line.
7. A
V 9V V
E= = = 9000
d 0.001m m
8. D
 C2 
 8.85 x10 −12 (
 0.004 m 2
2 
)
ε A
C= o =
Nm 
= 3.5 x10 −11 F
d 0.001 m
9. A
( )
q = CV = 3.5 x10 −11 F (9V ) = 3.2 x10 −10 C
10. C
V εo A εo 2A
E= and C = =
2d d 2d
228
(a) 3 points
KQ + KQ + KQ − KQ − KQ
Vo = Σ = + + + =0
r r r r r
(b) 6 points
+Q +Q
r
d
Ey
-Q -Q
The net electric field is downward by symmetry, and only includes the vertical
components of the electric field vectors from each of the charges. The y-components of
the electric field vectors are 45º from the diagonals of the square.
 
 
 KQ  2
 = 2 2 
KQ 
E = 4  2  
 r  2  2 2
 d  +d  
  2   2  
 
(c) 3 points
+10Q
E
d
-10Q
(d) 3 points
q 10Q
C= =
V Ed
229
Chapter 21 Magnetic Forces and Magnetic Fields
Chapter 21
MAGNETIC FORCES AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
PREVIEW
A magnetic field is the condition of the space around a magnet in which another magnet
will experience a force. Magnetic poles can be north or south, and like poles repel each
other and unlike poles attract. Fundamentally, magnetism is caused by moving charges,
such as a current in a wire. Thus, a moving charge or current-carrying wire produces a
magnetic field, and will experience a force if placed in an external magnetic field.
The content contained in sections 1 – 5, 7, 8, and 10 of chapter 21 of the textbook is

QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
electromagnet
a magnet with a field produced by an electric current
law of poles
like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract
magnetic domain
cluster of magnetically aligned atoms
magnetic field
the space around a magnet in which another magnet or moving charge
will experience a force
mass spectrometer
a device which uses forces acting on charged particles moving a magnetic field
and the resulting path of the particles to determine the relative masses of the
charged particles
right-hand rules
used to find the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire or the
force acting on a wire or charge in a magnetic field
solenoid
a long coil of wire in the shape of a helix; when current is passed through a
solenoid it produces a magnetic field similar to a bar magnet
253
FB
B=
q 0 v sin θ where
mv
r= B = magnetic field
qB F B = magnetic force
FB = ILB sin θ q = charge
v = speed or velocity of a charge
µ0 I
B= θ = angle between the velocity of a
2πr moving charge and a magnetic field,
or between the length of a current-
carrying wire and a magnetic field
r = radius of path of a charge moving in
a magnetic field, or radial distance
from a current-carrying wire
m = mass
I = current
L = length of wire in a magnetic field
μ 0 = permeability constant
= 4π x 10-7 (T m) / A

21.2, 21.3, and 21.4 The Force That a Magnetic Field Exerts on a
Moving Charge, The Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field,
and The Mass Spectrometer
Since a moving charge creates a magnetic field around itself, it will also feel a force
when it moves through a magnetic field. The direction of the force acting on such a
charge is given by the right-hand rule, with the thumb pointing in the direction of the
velocity of the charge. We use our right hand for moving positive charges, and our left
hand for moving negative charges.
F
F
N S
v B I or v B
254
Right-hand Rule No. 1 for force on a moving charge: Place your fingers in the
direction of the magnetic field (north to south), your thumb in the direction of the velocity
of a moving charge (or current in a wire), and the magnetic force on the charge (or wire)
will come out of your palm.
The equation for finding the force on a charge moving through a magnetic field is
F = qvBsin θ
where q is the charge in Coulombs, v is the velocity in m/s, B is the magnetic field in
Teslas, and θ is the angle between the velocity and the magnetic field. If the angle is 90°,
the equation becomes F = qvB.
Example 1
A proton enters a magnetic field B which is directed into the page. The proton has a
charge +q and a velocity v which is directed to the right, and enters the magnetic field
perpendicularly.
q = +1.6 x 10-19 C B
v = 4.0 x 106 m/s

q
B = 0.5 T
v
Determine
(a) the magnitude and direction of the initial force acting on the proton
(b) the subsequent path of the proton in the magnetic field
(c) the radius of the path of the proton
(d) the magnitude and direction of an electric field that would cause the proton to
continue moving in a straight line.
Solution
(a) As the proton enters the magnetic field, it will initially experience a force which is
directed upward, as we see from using the right-hand rule.
q v
( )( )
F = qvB = 1.6 x10 −19 C 4.0 x10 6 m / s (0.5T ) = 3.2 x10 −13 N
255
(b) The path of the proton will curve upward in a circular path, with the magnetic force
becoming a centripetal force, changing the direction of the velocity to form the circular
path.
(c) The radius of this circle can be found by setting the magnetic force equal to the
centripetal force:
magnetic force = centripetal force

mv 2
qvB =
r
r=
( )(
mv 1.7 x10 −27 kg 4.0 x10 6 m / s
=
)
= 8.5 x10 − 2 m
qB ( )
1.6 x10 C (0.5T )
−19
(d) If the charge is to follow a straight-line path through the magnetic field, we must
orient the electric field to apply a force on the moving charge that is equal and opposite to
the magnetic force. In this case, the electric force on the charge would need to be directed
downward to counter the upward magnetic force. The electric field between the plates
would be directed downward, as shown below:
The net force acting on the moving charge is the sum of the electric and magnetic forces,
and is called the Lorentz force:
Fnet = FE + FB
Fnet = qE + qvB
The net force in this case is zero, so the magnitude of the electric and magnetic forces are equal to each other :
qE = qvB
( )
E = vB = 4.0 x10 6 m / s (0.5T ) = 2.0 x10 6
N
C
This expression relates the speed of the charge and the electric and magnetic fields for a
charge moving undeflected through the fields.
256
21.5 The Force on a Current in a Magnetic Field

Since a current-carrying wire creates a magnetic field around itself according to the first
right-hand rule, every current-carrying wire is a magnet. Thus, if we place a current-
carrying wire in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force. Once again, the
direction of the force acting on the wire is given by the right-hand rule:
N S
B I or v B
I
Again, you would use your left hand to find the direction of the magnetic force if you
were given electron flow instead of conventional current.
The equation for finding the force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field is
F = ILBsin θ
where I is the current in the wire, L is the length of wire which is in the magnetic field, B
is the magnetic field, and θ is the angle between the length of wire and the magnetic
field. If the angle is 90 °, the equation becomes simply F = ILB.
Example 2
A wire carrying a 20 A current and having a length L = 0.10 m is placed between the
poles of a magnet at an angle of 45°, as shown. The magnetic field is uniform and has a
value of 0.8 T.
Top View
45°
N S
B
I
Determine the magnitude and direction of the magnetic force acting on the wire.
(sin 45° = cos 45° = 0.7)
257
Solution
The magnitude of the force on the wire is found by
F = ILB sin θ = (20 A)(0.10 m )(0.8 T )sin 45° = 1.13 N
The direction of the force can be found by the right-hand rule. Place your fingers in the
direction of the magnetic field, and your thumb in the direction of the length (and current)
which is perpendicular to the magnetic field, and we see that the force is out of the page.
Note that the length must have a component which is perpendicular to the magnetic field,
or there will be no magnetic force on the wire. In other words, if the wire is placed
parallel to the magnetic field, sin 0° = 0, and the force will also be zero.
Remember, use your right hand for current or moving positive charges, and your left
hand for electron flow or moving negative charges.
Example 3
A wire is bent into a square loop and placed completely in a magnetic field B = 1.2 T.
Each side of the loop has a length of 0.1m and the current passing through the loop is 2.0
A. The loop and magnetic field is in the plane of the page.
B
(a) Find the magnitude of the initial force on
each side of the wire.
(b) Determine the initial net torque acting on the a b
loop.
I
c d
Solution
By the right-hand rule, side ab will experience a force downward into the page and side
cd will experience a force upward out of the page. The current in sides bd and ac are
parallel to the magnetic field, so there is no magnetic force acting on them.
Fab = ILB = (2.0 A)(0.1 m )(1.2T ) = 0.24 N into the page.

Fcd = ILB = (2.0 A)(0.1 m )(1.2T ) = 0.24 N out of the page.
The result of the opposite forces on ab and cd is a torque on the loop, causing it to rotate
in the magnetic field. This is the basic principle behind ammeters, voltmeters, and the
electric motor. In this case, two equal and opposite forces cause the torque on the loop:
Τ = 2rF = 2(0.05 m )(0.24 N ) = 0.024 Nm
258
21.7 and 21.8 Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents, and Ampere’s

Law
A current-carrying wire creates a magnetic field around itself. Fundamentally, magnetic
fields are produced by moving charges. This is why all atoms are tiny magnets, since the
electrons around the nucleus of the atom are moving charges and are therefore magnetic.
The magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire circulates around the wire in a direction
can be found by another right-hand rule.
Right-hand Rule No. 2 for the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire:
Place your thumb in the direction of the current I, and your fingers will curl around in
the direction of the magnetic field produced by that current.
current I
I
Magnetic Field B
In determining the direction of a magnetic field due to the flow of electrons in a wire, we
would use the left hand instead of the right hand.
If the distance r from the wire is small compared to the length of the wire, we can find the
magnitude of the magnetic field B by the equation
µo I
B=
2πr
r
Tm
where µ o is called the permeability constant and is equal to 4π x 10-7 . The value 4π
A
in this constant is often used for reasons of geometry. The magnetic field around a
1
current-carrying wire is proportional to , while electric field around a point charge is
r
1
proportional to 2 .
r
259

3. The magnitude of the force on the

wire is
(A) 0.06 N
(B) 2.0 N
(C) 6.7 N
1. A wire carries a current, creating a (D) 0.15 N
magnetic field around itself as shown. (E) 0.015 N
The current in the wire is
(A) directed to the right. Questions 4 – 6:
(B) directed to the left. An electron enters a magnetic field as
(C) equal to the magnetic field. shown.
(D) in the same direction as the magnetic
field.
(E) zero. e
B
Questions 2 – 3:
θ v
A wire carrying a current of 2 A is
placed in a magnetic field 4. The electron will experience a force
of 0.1 T as shown. The length of wire in which is initially
the magnetic field (A) into the page.
is 0.3 m. (B) out of the page.
(C) toward the top of the page.
(D) toward the bottom of the page.
(E) to the left.
B
5.The magnitude of the force acting on

N S the electron is
(A) evB
(B) evB cos θ
I
(C) evB sin θ
(D) vB
(E) vB sin θ
6. The resulting path of the electron is a

2. The force on the wire is directed
(A) parabola
(A) into the page.
(B) straight line
(B) out of the page.
(C) spiral or helix
(C) toward the top of the page.
(D) hyperbola
(D) toward the bottom of the page.
(E) circle
(E) to the left.
260

1. (10 points)
P y
r
I 2r x
+z
(out of page)
4I
Two wires cross each other at right angles. The vertical wire is carrying a current I and
the horizontal wire is carrying a current 4I. Point P is a perpendicular distance r from the
vertical wire, and a distance 2r from the horizontal wire.
(a) With reference to the coordinate system shown at the right, determine the magnitude
and direction of the magnetic field at point P.
P
r
v
e
I 2r
4I
An electron is moving parallel to the horizontal wire with a speed v in the +x direction.
Determine each of the following as the charge passes point P:
(b) the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on the electron
(c) the magnitude and direction of the electric field necessary to keep the electron moving
in a straight horizontal path.
261

Multiple Choice
1. A
By right-hand rule no. 2, if the fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field around
the wire (up and over the wire toward you), the current must be to the right.
2. B
According to right-hand rule no. 1, the fingers point to the right in the direction of the
magnetic field, the thumb points toward the bottom of the page in the direction of the
current, and the force comes out of the palm and out of the page.
3. A
F = ILB = (2 A)(0.1 T)(0.3 m) = 0.06 N
4. B
We use the left-hand-rule, since the electron is a negative charge, placing our fingers
toward the bottom of the page, and the thumb to the right, in the direction of the
component of the velocity which crosses the magnetic field lines. The force, then, comes
out of the palm and out of the page.
5. C
The magnitude of the force is equal to the product of the charge, speed, and magnetic
field, and the sine of the angle between the velocity and the magnetic field, which is θ.
6. C
The electron will orbit a magnetic field line, but also continue to move down toward the
bottom of the page, therefore spiraling downward.
(a) 4 points
The net magnetic field at point P is due to the magnetic fields produced by both wires:
µ I
Br = o into the page (-z)
2πr
µ (4 I )
B2 r = o out of the page (+z)
2π (2r )
µ (4 I ) µ o I µ o I
Bnet = B2 r − Br = o − = out of the page (+z)
2π (2r ) 2πr 2πr
(b) 2 points
Let the charge on one electron be e. Then
µ I 
F = evB = ev o 
 2πr 
The direction of the force is up to the top of the page (+y) by the left-hand rule for a
moving negative charge.
262
(c) 4 points
In order to keep the electron moving in a straight path to the right, we would need to
apply a downward (-y) electric force to the electron which is equal and opposite to the
upward (+y) magnetic force.
FB
Since electric field lines are drawn in the direction a
positive charge would experience a force, they would E
be drawn in the opposite direction an electron would
experience a force. Thus, the electric field would need FE
to be applied in the +y direction to keep the electron
moving in a straight horizontal line.
The magnitude of the electric field can be found by setting the magnetic force equal to
the electric force:
FB = FE
evB = eE
µ I 
E = vB = v o 
 2πr 
263
Chapter 22 Electromagnetic Induction
Chapter 22
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
PREVIEW
Since a current produces a magnetic field, we may assume that a magnetic field can
produce a current. Electromagnetic induction is the process by which an emf (or voltage)
is produced in a wire by a changing magnetic flux. Magnetic flux is the product of the
magnetic field and the area through which the magnetic field lines pass. Electromagnetic
induction is the principle behind the electric generator and the transformer. The direction
of the induced emf or current is governed by Lenz’s law.
The content contained in sections 1 – 5, 7, and 10 (Example 15) of chapter 22 of the

QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
alternating current
electric current that rapidly reverses its direction
electric generator
a device that uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy
electromagnetic induction
inducing a voltage in a conductor by changing the magnetic
field around the conductor
induced current
the current produced by electromagnetic induction
induced emf
the voltage produced by electromagnetic induction
Faraday’s law of induction
law which states that a voltage can be induced in a
conductor by changing the magnetic field around the conductor
Lenz’s law
the induced emf or current in a wire produces a magnetic flux which opposes
the change in flux that produced it by electromagnetic induction
magnetic flux
the product of the magnetic field and the area through which the magnetic
field lines pass.
motional emf
emf or voltage induced in a wire due to relative motion between the wire and a
magnetic field
264
ε = vBL where
ε
I= ε = emf (voltage) induced by
R
electromagnetic induction
Φ = BA cos φ v = relative speed between a conductor
∆Φ and a magnetic field
ε = −N
∆t B = magnetic field
VS N L = length of a conductor in a magnetic
= S field
VP N P
I = current
IS NP R = resistance
=
IP NS Φ = magnetic flux
P = IV A = area through which the flux is
passing
φ = angle between the direction of the
magnetic field and the area through
which it passes
N = number of loops in a coil of wire
V S = voltage in the secondary coil of a
transformer
V P = voltage in the primary coil of a
transformer
N S = number of loops in the secondary
coil of wire in a transformer
N P = number of loops in the primary coil
of wire in a transformer

265
22.2 Motional Emf

In the 1830’s Faraday and Henry independently discovered that an electric current could
be produced by moving a magnet through a coil of wire, or, equivalently, by moving a
wire through a magnetic field. Generating a current this way is called electromagnetic
induction.
If we move a rod perpendicular to a magnetic field, there is a magnetic force on the

charges in the rod, sending the positive charges to one end of the wire and the negative
charges to the other, as shown in your textbook. This polarization of charge creates a
potential difference or emf ε between the ends of the rod. If the rod closes a loop, the
induced ε produces a current I around the closed loop.
B (out of the page)

The motional emf produced in the rod is
ε = vBL
If the circuit has a resistance R, the induced current is
ε vBL
I= =
R R
Example 1
In the diagram above, the magnetic field is directed out of the page, and the rod is
moving to the right. Find the direction of the induced current in the rod.
266
Solution
Consider a small positive charge inside the rod. As the charge moves to the right with the
rod, we can find the direction of the magnetic force on the charge by using right-hand
rule no. 2.
v
+q
FB
Since the force on a positive charge in the rod is downward toward the bottom of the
page, the flow of positive charge and thus the induced current is toward the bottom of the
page.
22.3 - 22.4
Magnetic Flux and Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, and
Lenz’s Law
Consider a rectangular loop of wire of height L and width x which sits in a region of
magnetic field of length 3x. The magnetic field is directed into the page, as shown
below:
B
w
The loop is in the plane of the page so that its area is perpendicular to the magnetic field
lines. The magnetic flux Φ through the loop is the scalar product of the magnetic field B
and the area A through which it fluxes:
Φ = B•A
267
As the loop sits a rest in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux through it is constant, and
is equal to BA = BLx. If the loop were tilted forward (toward you) at an angle φ relative
to the magnetic field, the flux would be
Φ = BA cos φ
But if the loop is moved through the magnetic field with a constant speed v, the flux
through the loop does not remain constant, but changes with time:
w
x
Faraday’s law of induction states that an emf ε will be induced in a loop of wire through
which the flux is changing:
− ∆Φ
ε=
∆t
Note that the induced emf in the wire is not caused by the magnetic flux or field, but by
the change in flux through the loop.
It may occur to you that we could use Faraday’s law of induction to create an emf or
current, and the induced current would produce a new magnetic field and flux which
could produce more current, and so on. But Lenz’s law tells us that this is not possible.
Lenz’s law states that the induced emf or current in a wire produces a change in flux
which opposes the change in flux that produced it.
The negative sign on the equation for the induced emf above tells us that the new change
in flux works against the old change in flux. This is essentially a statement of
conservation of energy.
268
The the emf induced in the loop as the loop is passing through the magnetic field is
− ∆Φ − ∆(BA)
ε= =
∆t ∆t
where A is the area of magnetic field which is enclosed by the loop of wire. In the
position of the loop shown, this area would be Lx. So, the equation for ε becomes
− B[∆(Lx )]  ∆x 
ε= = − BL  = − BLv
∆t  ∆t 
The current can be found by Ohm’s law:
ε − BLv
I= =
R R
Faraday’s law of induction is illustrated in the excellent examples in your textbook, and
in the review questions and free response problem that follow.
22.7 The Electric Generator

The principle of electromagnetic induction is the basis for a generator. A generator
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Place a loop of wire on an axle in a
magnetic field. As the loop is rotated, the wire crosses magnetic field lines and generates
a current in the loop. That current can be used to light a light bulb, or power a city. All of
our electrical power is generated in a similar way.
N
S
269

1. All of the following can induce and

emf in a coil of wire EXCEPT 3. A generator
(A) moving a magnet through the coil (A) converts mechanical energy into
(B) placing a stationary coil of wire in an electrical energy.
increasing magnetic field (B) converts electrical energy into
(C) placing a stationary coil of wire in a mechanical energy.
stationary magnetic field. (C) converts heat energy into mechanical
(D) placing a stationary coil of wire in energy.
an decreasing magnetic field (D) converts electrical energy into heat
(E) moving both the coil of wire and a energy.
magnet away from each other at the (E) converts nuclear energy into heat
same speed energy.
2. A magnet moves into a coil of wire

inducing a current in the wire. If the
magnet pulled back out of the coil in the
opposite direction as it went into the 4. Which of the following is implied by
coil, which of the following will occur? Lenz’s law?
(A) There will be a current produced in (A) The induced emf always opposes the
the coil in the same direction as emf that produced it.
before. (B) The induced current always opposes
(B) There will be a current produced in the current that produced it.
the coil in the opposite direction as (C) The induced emf always opposes the
before. change in flux that produced it.
(C) There will be no current produced in (D) The induced emf always opposes the
the coil. flux that produced it.
(D) The current produced must be (E) The induced emf always opposes the
stronger than before. magnetic field that produced it.
(E) The current produced must be
weaker than before.
270
Questions 5 – 7: A conducting rod of length 0.30 m and resistance 10.0 Ω moves with a speed of
2.0 m/s through a magnetic field of 0.20 T which is directed out of the page.
B (out of the page)

5. The emf induced in the rod is
(A) 0.12V
(B) 0.40V
(C) 0.60 V
(D) 0.72 V
(E) 4.0 V
7. The power dissipated in the rod is
6. The current produced in the rod is (A) 4.00 x 10-3 Watts
(A) 0.012 A (B) 1.44 x 10-3 Watts
(B) 0.040 A (C) 6.14 x 10-3 Watts
(C) 0.060 A (D) 3.14 x 10-3 Watts
(D) 0.072 A (E) 2.33 x 10-3 Watts
(E) 0.40 A
271

1. (15 points)
a
A square loop of sides a = 0.4 m, mass m = 1.5 kg, and resistance 5.0 Ω falls from rest from a
height h = 1.0 m toward a uniform magnetic field B which is directed into the page as shown.
(a) Determine the speed of the loop just before it enters the magnetic field.
As the loop enters the magnetic field, an emf ε and a current I is induced in the loop.
(b) Is the direction of the induced current in the loop clockwise or counterclockwise?
Briefly explain how you arrived at your answer.
When the loop enters the magnetic field, it falls through with a constant velocity.
(c) Calculate the magnetic force necessary to keep the loop falling at a constant velocity.
(d) What is the magnitude of the magnetic field B necessary to keep the loop falling at a
constant velocity?
(e) Calculate the induced emf in the loop as it enters and exits the magnetic field.
272
Multiple Choice
1. E
There must be relative motion between the coil and magnet for an emf to be induced.
2. B
Pushing the north end of a magnet into a coil will produce a current in the opposite direction than
if the north end were pulled out of the coil. Opposite magnet velocities will create opposite
currents.
3. A
Mechanical energy is put into a generator, and electrical energy is produced in the form of
current.
4. C
Induced emf opposes the change in flux that produced it, not necessarily the initial flux,
magnetic field, current, or emf.
5. A
ε = BLv = (0.2 0T )(0.30 m )(2.0 m / s ) = 0.12V
6. A
ε 0.12 V
I= = = 0.012 A
R 10 Ω
7. B
P = I 2 R = (0.012 A) (10Ω ) = 1.44 x10 −3 Watts
2
(a) 3 points
Conservation of energy
U top = K bottom
1
mgh = mv
2
( )
v = 2 gh = 2 10m / s 2 (1.0 m ) = 4.5 m / s
(b) 2 points
As the positive charges in the leading edge of the loop move downward through the magnetic
field, they experience a force to the right. Thus, the current moves to the right in the bottom of
the loop, and around the loop counterclockwise.
273
(c) 3 points
The magnetic force upward just balances the weight of the loop downward.
( )
FB = mg = (1.5 kg ) 10 m / s 2 = 15 N
(d) 5 points
εaB
FB = IaB =
R
FB R
B=
εa
Since F B is equal to the weight of the loop, and ε = BLv , we can solve for B:
B=
FB R
=
(15 N )(5.0 Ω ) = 10.2 T
a 2v (0.4 m )2 (4.5 m / s )
(e) 2 points
ε = Bav = (10.2 T )(0.4 m )(0.45 m / s ) = 1.8V
274
Chapter 24 Electromagnetic Waves
Chapter 24
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
PREVIEW
Electromagnetic waves are produced and propagated through space by vibrating electric
and magnetic fields. Light is the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, which
includes many other electromagnetic waves such as radio waves, ultraviolet light, and x –
rays. All electromagnetic waves travel at 3 x 108 m/s in a vacuum. Visible light can be
dispersed into its component colors, with the longest wavelength being red, and the
shortest wavelength violet. All of the terms we apply to any waves can be applied to light
and all other electromagnetic waves, such as wavelength, polarization, diffraction, and
interference.
The content contained in sections 1, 2, 3, and 6 of chapter 24 of the textbook is included

QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
electromagnetic spectrum
the range of electromagnetic waves from low frequency to
high frequency, or colors when white light is passed through a prism
electromagnetic wave
a wave which is produced by vibrating charges and propagates itself through
space by the mutual generation of changing electric and magnetic fields
polarized light
light in which the electric fields are all in the same plane
ultraviolet
electromagnetic waves of frequencies higher than those of violet light
speed of light
in a vacuum, 3 x 108 m/s

c = fλ
where
c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s
f = frequency of light
λ = wavelength of light
276

24.1 - 24.2 The Nature of Electromagnetic Waves and The

Electromagnetic Spectrum
As we briefly discussed in the last chapter, an electromagnetic wave is a vibration of

electric and magnetic fields that move through space at an extremely high speed. The
electric and magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave vibrate perpendicular to each
other. The electromagnetic wave spectrum, listed from lowest frequency to highest
frequency, include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays,
and gamma rays. If the visible colors of light are listed from long wavelength (low
frequency) to short wavelength (high frequency), they would follow the order red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet (ROYGBV).
Low freq High freq
Long λ Short λ
microwave IR UV
Radio X - ray Gamma ray

AM, FM, TV
VISIBLE
ROYGBV
24.3 The Speed of Light

All electromagnetic waves are a result of the same phenomena, and although they have
different wavelengths and frequencies, they all travel through a vacuum at exactly the
same speed: 3 x 108 m/s, or about 670 million miles per hour. This speed is often referred
to as the speed of light, although light is just one example of an electromagnetic wave.
More accurately, this speed is the speed of any electromagnetic wave in a vacuum. In any
case, the speed of an electromagnetic wave is given the symbol c, from the Latin word
celeritas, meaning “swift”. According to Einstein’s theory of special relativity, the speed
of an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum is constant for all observers regardless of any
motion between the source of the electromagnetic wave and the observer.
Electromagnetic waves travel at slower speeds in more dense media, such as water or
glass.
277
The speed, frequency, and wavelength of any electromagnetic wave traveleing through a
vacuum is given by the wave equation:
c = fλ
24.5 The Doppler Effect and Electromagnetic Waves

Even though the speed of an electromagnetic wave is the same for all observers, all
observers will not measure the same value for the frequency of an electromagnetic wave,
just as all listeners will not measure the same pitch from a moving sound source. The
Doppler effect applies to any wave in which there is relative motion between a source
and an observer. For visible light, for example, if a light source such as a star is moving
toward you, you would measure its frequency a little higher than if the source were at
rest, that is, the electromagnetic spectrum would be shifted toward the high frequency
end (blue). Similarly, the frequency of a light source moving away from you would
appear shifted to the low frequency end of the spectrum (red). Astronomers use the blue-
shift and red-shift of light to measure the speeds of stars.
24.6 Polarization
Light is a transverse vibration of electric and a magnetic fields. If you could watch light
waves coming toward you, you would see that they actually vibrate in many directions.
We say the light is polarized when it is forced to vibrate in only one plane:
Light can be polarized by passing it through a polarizing lens or filter. Many sunglasses
are actually polarizing filters which will only pass certain vibrations of light.
278

1. Which of the following best describes

the vibration of an electromagnetic 4. Violet light has a frequency of 7.5 x
wave? 1014 Hz. The wavelength of violet light
(A) Electric and magnetic fields vibrate is most nearly
perpendicular to one another. (A) 2.25 x 1023 m
(B) Electric and magnetic fields vibrate (B) 2.5 x 106 m
parallel to one another. (C) 4 x 10-7 m
(C) The electric field is vibrating and the (D) 7.5 x 10-7 m
magnetic field is stationary. (E) 2.25 x 107 m
(D) The magnetic field is vibrating and
the electric field is stationary.
(E) Both the electric field and magnetic
field are stationary.
5. The frequency of light emitted by a
2. Which of the following lists the certain start is known to be 7 x 1014 Hz.
electromagnetic waves from longest An astronomer measures the frequency
wavelength to shortest wavelength? of the light from the star to be 6 x 1014
(A) x-ray, ultraviolet, visible light Hz. The star is
(B) visible light, ultraviolet, x-ray (A) moving toward the astronomer
(C) ultraviolet, x-ray, visible light (B) moving away from the astronomer
(D) ultraviolet, visible light, x-ray (C) stationary
(E) x-ray, visible light, ultraviolet (D) expanding
(E) orbiting Earth
3. In a vacuum, all electromagnetic
waves have the same 6. We say that light is polarized when it
(A) amplitude (A) vibrates in all planes
(B) frequency (B) moves away from the observer
(C) wavelength (C) does not vibrate
(D) intensity (D) vibrates in only one plane
(E) speed (E) moves toward an observer
279
Multiple Choice
1. A
The electric field in an electromagnetic wave vibrates perpendicular to the vibrating
magnetic field.
2. B
Visible light has the longest wavelength and lowest frequency of the three, and x-rays
have the shortest wavelength and the highest frequency of the three.
3. E
All electromagnetic waves travel at 3 x 108 m/s in a vacuum.
4. C
c 3 x10 8 m / s
λ= = 14
= 4 x10 −7 m
f 7.5 x10 Hz
5. B
Since the frequency the astronomer measures is lower than the known frequency, the
light is red-shifted and the star must be moving away.
6. D
All of the light passed through a polarizing filter is blocked except for that vibrating in
one plane.
280
Chapter 25 The Reflection of Light: Mirrors
Chapter 25
THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT: MIRRORS
PREVIEW
The ray model of light states that light may be represented by a straight line along the
direction of motion, and ray optics is the study of light using the ray model. Light can be
reflected from a surface such as a mirror. In this chapter, we’ll study reflection from
plane mirrors and spherical mirrors. As light rays are reflected, they may form an image,
which can be real or virtual, depending on the distance from the mirror to the object
which is the source of the light rays. Ray diagrams can be drawn to show the bending of
a light ray or to locate an image formed by a mirror.
The content contained in all sections of chapter 25 of the textbook is included on the AP
Physics B exam.
QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
angle of incidence
the angle between the normal line to a surface and the incident ray or wave
angle of reflection
the angle between the normal line to a surface and the reflected ray or wave
converging mirror
a mirror which converges light rays reflecting from it; also known as
a concave mirror
diverging mirror
a mirror which diverges light rays reflecting from it; also known as a
convex mirror
focal length
the distance between the center of a lens or mirror to the point at which the
rays converge at the focal point
focal point
the point at which light rays converge or appear to originate
image
reproduction of an object using lenses or mirrors
magnification
ratio of the size of an optical image to the size of the object
object (optics)
the source of diverging light rays
plane mirror
smooth, flat surface that reflects light regularly
281
principal axis
the line connecting the center of curvature of a curved mirror with its
geometrical vertex; the line perpendicular to the plane of a lens passing through
its center
radius of curvature
the radius of a spherical mirror which is equal to twice the focal length of the
mirror
ray model of light
light may be represented by a straight line along the direction of motion
ray optics
study of light using the ray model
real image
an image that can be projected onto a screen
virtual image
an image which cannot be projected onto a screen; point at which
diverging light rays appear to originate
θr = θi
1 θ r = angle of reflection as measured
f = R from
2 the normal line
ho d
= o θ i = angle of incidence as measured from
− hi d i the normal line
1 1 1 f = focal length of a mirror
+ = R = radius of curvature of a convex or
do di f
concave mirror
di h o = height of the object
m=−
do h i = height of the image produced by a
mirror
d o = distance from the center of the
mirror to the object
d i = distance from the center of the
mirror to the image
m = magnification
where

282
25.3 The Formation of Images by a Plane Mirror
Any wave that bounces off of a barrier follows the law of reflection: the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection as measured from a line normal
(perpendicular) to the barrier (Figure A). In the case of light, the barrier is often a mirror.
This is why if someone can see you in a mirror, you can see him in the mirror as well.
θi
Normal
θr
Figure A Figure B
A plane mirror is simply a flat mirror. From your everyday experience you know that a
plane mirror always produces an image which is the same size as the object (which could
be you in the morning), left-right reversed, and the same distance behind the surface of
the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror. We say that the image formed by a plane
mirror is virtual, since we cannot place a screen behind the mirror and see the image
projected on the screen. A virtual image is one that cannot be projected onto a screen.
We can locate the image formed by a plane mirror by tracing two reflected rays and then
extending them backward (Figure B). The point at which the two rays seem to meet is
where the virtual image is formed.
25.4 - 25.6 Spherical Mirrors, The Formation of Images by Spherical

Mirrors, and The Mirror Equation and the Magnification Equation
We will discuss two types of spherical (curved) mirrors: diverging (convex) and
converging (concave), although the AP Physics B exam usually focuses on concave
mirrors.
A diverging mirror is sometimes referred to as a convex mirror. You may have seen this
type of mirror in the corner of a convenience store. The mirror diverges the rays of light
which strike it, allowing the clerk at the store to see practically the entire store in one
283
mirror. Light rays coming into the mirror parallel to its principal axis will diverge, or
spread apart:
3f 2f f f 2f 3f
Notice that the rays appear to originate from a point behind the mirror. This point is
called the virtual focus, and the distance between the surface of the mirror at its center
and the focal point is called the focal length f.
A converging mirror is sometimes referred to as a concave mirror. If a spherically-

shaped concave mirror is small compared to its radius of curvature R, then light rays
coming in parallel to the principal axis of the mirror will converge to a focal point.
3f 2f =R f f 2f =R 3f
For this kind of mirror, the focal length f and the radius of curvature R of the mirror are
related by the equation f = ½ R.
If you look into a converging mirror, you will at first see an image of yourself which is
inverted (upside-down), but then as you move closer to the mirror your will see your
image turn upright as you pass the focal point of the mirror. Satellite dishes act as
converging mirrors for radio and TV waves, gathering them at a detector located at the
focal point of the dish. Most research telescopes also use converging mirrors rather than
lenses to initially focus incoming light and study images.
The image formed by a converging mirror depends on the location of the object in
relation to the focal length and its orientation, and can be real, which means it can be
projected onto a screen, or virtual. The image can also be upright or inverted (upside-
down), and smaller, larger, or the same size as the object.
The object distance d o is the distance from the center of the surface of the mirror to the
object, and the image distance d i is the distance from the center of the surface of the
mirror to the image.
284
For the image formed, the ratio of the object height h o to the image height h i is equal to
the ratio of the object distance to the image distance:
ho d o
=
hi di
and the magnification of the image is given by

h d
m= i =− i .
ho do
Magnification tells us how many times larger or smaller an image is than the object.
The negative sign is inserted as a convention. The object height h o is always taken as
positive, and the image height h i is positive if the image is upright and negative if
inverted. The object and image distances are positive if the image and object are on the
reflecting side of the mirror. If either the object or the image is behind the mirror, the
corresponding object or image distance is negative. In the end, the magnification m is
positive for an upright image and negative for an inverted image.
The relationship between the object distance, image distance, and focal length is
1 1 1
= +
f do di
where f = ½ R.
Example 1
A converging (concave) mirror has a focal length of 20.0 cm. A 5.0-cm tall candle is
placed at a distance of 50.0 cm in front of the mirror.
(a) By drawing a ray diagram, find the location of the image formed by the converging
mirror. State whether the image is real or virtual, upright or inverted, and larger, smaller,
or the same size as the object (candle).
(b) Using the mirror and magnification equations, verify your results from part (a).
Solution
(a) To find the image formed by the mirror, we will draw two rays: (1) one ray from the
flame which strikes the mirror parallel to the principal axis and reflecting through the
focal point, and (2) another ray from the flame which goes through the focal point and
reflects back parallel to the principal axis. The image is formed at the location of the
intersection of these two rays:
285
do = 60cm
1
2
3f 2f f f 2f 3f
di
Note that when the object is place at a distance greater than twice the focal length, the
image is inverted and smaller than the object. If we place a screen at the location of the
image, we would see that the image is real. For a concave mirror, if the image is formed
on the same side of the mirror as the object the image is real. If the image is formed on
the opposite side of the mirror as the object, it is virtual. Recall that a plane mirror will
only produce an image on the opposite side to the object, and thus is always virtual.
If we’ve drawn our diagram to scale we can simply measure the image distance from the
center of the mirror. Let’s say our measurement is d i = 32.5 cm, and the height of the
image is 3.2 cm.
(b) Using the mirror and magnification equations, we can solve the image distance:
1 1 1
= +
f do di
1 1 1
= +
20 cm 50 cm d i
d i = 33.3 cm
Note that our measurement of the image distance is very close to the calculated value
within reasonable experimental error.
The magnification of the candle can be found by

h d
m= i =− i
ho do
− ho d i − (5.0 cm )(33.3 cm )
hi = = = −3.3 cm
do 50 cm
Again, the negative sign indicates the image is inverted.
286
Example 2
A converging (concave) mirror has a focal length of 20.0 cm. A 5.0-cm tall candle is
placed at a distance of 10.0 cm in front of the mirror.
mirror. State whether the image is real or virtual, upright or inverted, and larger, smaller,
or the same size as the object (candle).
(b) Using the mirror and magnification equations, verify your results from part (a).
Solution
If we place the candle at a distance less than the focal length, the reflected rays diverge,
and the image is formed at the point from which the rays seem to originate. Drawing our
two principal rays:
3f 2f f f 2f 3f
Note that this time our second ray is drawn as if it originates at the center of curvature C,
which is located at 2f. A ray that passes through the center of curvature will reflect back
on itself, and therefore if we extend it behind the mirror it continues in a straight line. We
see that the image of the candle is upright, larger, and behind the mirror, and therefore is
virtual.
(b) Using the mirror and magnification equations, we can solve the image distance:
1 1 1
= +
f do di
1 1 1
= +
20 cm 10 cm d i
d i = −20 cm
The image distance is negative, indicating it is formed behind the mirror. Note that the
image distance shown in the diagram is slightly less than 20 cm due to measurement
error. The height of the image is
h d
m= i =− i
ho do
− ho d i − (5.0 cm )(− 20.0 cm )
hi = = = +10.0 cm
do 10.0 cm
The positive sign indicates that the image is upright.
287
The image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed inside the focal length
is virtual upright and enlarged. Thus if you want to see an upright image of your face in a
concave mirror, you must move the mirror to a distance less than one focal length from
your face.
Α summary of the images formed by a concave mirror (and a convex lens) is listed in the
table below.
Object placed Image real or virtual upright or larger or
at: distance d i inverted smaller
d o > 2f + real inverted smaller
d o = 2f + real inverted same size
f < d o < 2f + real inverted larger
do = f No image No image No image No image
do < f - virtual upright larger
Note that all real images are inverted.
Practice
Verify the results in the table above by drawing the ray diagrams below.
3f 2f f f 2f 3f
3f 2f f f 2f 3f
3f 2f f f 2f 3f
288

N
4. A candle is placed on the principal
axis of a concave mirror at a distance of
2 3
1 4 30 cm from the mirror. The focal length
of the mirror is 10 cm. The image
formed will be
1. In the figure shown the angle of (A) real, upright, and enlarged
(B) real, inverted, and enlarged
incidence is 2. Which angle(s) is/are the
angle(s) of reflection? (C) real, inverted, and smaller
(A) 1 (D) virtual, upright, and enlarged
(B) 3 and 4 (E) virtual, upright, and smaller
(C) 3
(D) 4 5. A candle is placed on the principal
(E) 1, 3, and 4. axis of a concave mirror at a distance of
10 cm from the mirror. The focal length
of the mirror is 20 cm. The image
2. A plane mirror will produce a virtual formed will be
image (A) real, upright, and enlarged
(A) when the object distance is greater (B) real, inverted, and enlarged
than the image distance. (C) real, inverted, and smaller
(B) when the object distance is less than (D) virtual, upright, and enlarged
the image distance. (E) virtual, upright, and smaller
(C) when the object is on the principal
axis of the mirror. 6. A candle is placed on the principal
(D) when the rays converge at the focal axis of a concave mirror at a distance of
point of the mirror 20 cm from the mirror. The image
(E) at all distances from the mirror. formed is magnified 3 times. The image
distance is
3. Which of the following mirrors (A) 7 cm
diverge parallel light rays? (B) 20 cm
(A) plane (C) 60 cm
(B) convex (D) 90 cm
(C) concave (E) 120 cm
(D) inverted
(E) upright
289

1. (15 points)
cm
180 150 120 90 60 30 30 60 90 120 150 180
The concave mirror shown above has a focal length of 30.0 centimeters. You are given a candle
5.0 centimeters high. You wish to produce an image on a screen which is 15.0 cm high.
(a) State whether you would place the candle on the left side of the mirror shown above or the
right side. Explain your choice.
(b) State whether you would place the screen on the left side of the mirror shown above or the
right side in order to see the image formed by the mirror. Explain your choice.
(c) Choose an appropriate object distance, and calculate the corresponding distance from the
mirror at which the screen should be placed in order to see the 15.0 cm image.
(d) Using an appropriate scale, draw a ray diagram on the figure above which verifies your
calculation.
290
Multiple Choice
1. C
The angles of incidence and reflection are both measured from the normal line.
2. E
A plane (flat) mirror will reflect light and produce an image at any distance from the object.
3. B
A convex mirror is also called a diverging mirror.
4. C
The candle is placed at a distance greater than twice the focal length, and so the image formed
will be real, inverted, and smaller than the candle.
5. D
The candle is placed at a distance less than the focal length, and so the image formed will be
virtual, upright, and enlarged.
6. C
di
Since Magnification = , then d i = (M)(d o ) = (3)(20 cm) = 60 cm.
do
(a) 2 points
The candle must be placed on the left side of the mirror, since the left side is the concave
(converging) side of the mirror.
(b) 2 points
In order to see an image on a screen, the image must be real. For a concave mirror, real images
are formed on the same side of the mirror as the object.
(c) 5 points
In order to produce an enlarged real image, the candle would need to be placed at an object
distance between f and 2f. Choosing 40 cm as the object distance, we can find the corresponding
image distance.
291
1 1 1
= +
f do di
1 1 1
= +
30 cm 40 cm d i
d i = 120 cm
The screen should be placed 120 cm to the left of the mirror.
(d) 6 points
Drawing one principal ray parallel to the principal axis and reflecting through the focal point,
and one principal ray passing through the center of curvature (other principal rays could have
been used):
cm
180 150 120 90 60 30 30 60 90 120 150 180
292
Chapter 26 The Refraction of Light: Lenses and Optical Instruments
Chapter 26
THE REFRACTION OF LIGHT: LENSES AND OPTICAL

INSTRUMENTS
PREVIEW
Light can be refracted, or bent, through a transparent medium such as a lens. The
relationship between the speed of light in two different media and the angle of the light
rays can be found using Snell’s law of refraction. As light rays are refracted, they may
form an image, which can be real or virtual, depending on the distance from the lens to
the object which is the source of the light rays. As in the previous case of mirrors, ray
diagrams can be drawn to show the bending of a light ray or to locate an image formed
by a lens.
The content contained in sections 1 – 8, and 15 (Example 17) of chapter 26 of the

QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
angle of incidence
the angle between the normal line to a surface and the incident ray or wave
angle of refraction
the angle between the normal line to a surface and the refracted ray
or wave at the boundary between two media.
converging lens
a lens which converges light rays to a focal point; also known as a
convex lens
critical angle
the minimum angle entering a different medium at which total internal
reflection will occur
diverging lens
a lens which diverges light rays passing through it; also known as a
concave lens
focal length
the distance between the center of a lens or mirror to the point at which the
rays converge at the focal point
focal point
the point at which light rays converge or appear to originate
index of refraction
the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in
another medium
293
lens
a piece of transparent material that can bend light rays to converge or diverge
magnifying glass
optical instrument which results from an object being placed within the focal
length of a convex lens, producing an enlarged virtual image
refraction
the change in speed, wavelength, and direction of a light ray due to a change
in medium
Snell’s law of refraction
when light passes from one material with an index of refraction n 1 into a material
of a different index of refraction n 2 , the angle of incidence θ 1 is related to the
angle of refraction θ 2 by the equation n 1 sinθ 1 = n 2 sin 2 .
total internal reflection
the complete reflection of light that strikes the boundary
between two media at an angle greater than the critical angle

where
c = fλ
c
n= f = frequency of light
v λ = wavelength of light
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2 n = index of refraction
n2 θ 1 = angle of incidence
sin θ c = θ 2 = angle of refraction
n1
θ c = critical angle
ho d
= o f = focal length of a lens
− hi d i h o = height of the object
1 1 1 h i = height of the image produced by a
+ = lens
do di f
d o = distance from the center of the lens
di to the object
m=−
do d i = distance from the center of the lens
to the image
m = magnification

294
26.1 and 26.2 The Index of Refraction, and Snell’s Law and the
Refraction of Light
If you put a pencil in a clear glass of water, the image of the pencil in the water appears
to be bent and distorted. The light passing from the air into the water is refracted,
bending due to the fact that it’s passing from one medium to another. If we consider a
single beam of laser light, we can observe it as it passes from air into a piece of glass.
θi
air
glass
θr
air
θi
The angle θ i from the normal line at which the beam approaches the glass from the air is
called the angle of incidence. The angle θ r from the normal line in the glass is the angle
of refraction. As the light passes from the air, a less dense medium, into the glass, a more
dense medium, the beam bends toward the normal line. When the beam of light exits the
glass and passes back into the air, it bends away from the normal at the same angle it
entered the glass from the air.
The light bends toward the normal in the glass because the beam slows down as it enters
the glass. Light travels more slowly in a more dense medium. Recall that sound travels
faster in a more dense medium, but sound is a mechanical wave, while light is an
electromagnetic wave. The ratio of the speed of light in air (approximately a vacuum) to
the speed of light in the glass (or any other medium) is called the index of refraction n:
c
n=
v glass
The index of refraction for a vacuum or air is 1, since v = c. The index of refraction for
crown glass is about 1.6, which means that light travels 1.6 times faster in a vacuum than
in crown glass.
295
We can relate the index of refraction to the angles of incidence and refraction by using
Snell’s law of refraction:
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
where n 1 and n 2 are the indices of refraction of the first and second media, and θ  and
θ 2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.
Example 1
A beam of light enters the flat surface of a diamond at an angle of 30º from the normal.
The angle of refraction in the diamond is measured to be 12º from the normal. Determine
the speed of light in the diamond.
Solution
The angle of incidence θ 1 = 30º and the angle of refraction θ 2 = 12º. The index of
refraction can be found by Snell’s law:
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
(1.0)sin 30 = n2 sin 12
n 2 = 2 .5
The speed of light in diamond can be found by
c
n2 =
v diamond
c 3 x10 8 m / s
v diamond = = = 1.2 x10 8 m / s
n2 2.5
26.3 Total Internal Reflection

Consider a water-proof laser which you can put under the water and shine a beam of light
up out of the water into the air. If you shine the light at a small angle relative to the
normal, the light will emerge from the water and bend away from the normal as it enters
the air.
θr
θr = 90˚
total
internal
θi θr
θi reflection
θc
296
As you increase the angle at which the laser is pointed at the surface of the water, the
refracted angle also increases, eventually causing the refracted ray to bend parallel to the
surface of the water:
The angle θ c is called the critical angle. If the laser is pointed at an angle greater than
the critical angle, the beam will not emerge from the water, but will reflect back into the
water.
This phenomena is called total internal reflection. The inside surfaces of a glass prism in
a pair of binoculars can become like mirrors, reflecting light inside the prism if the light
is pointed at the surface at an angle greater than the critical angle. Total internal reflection
is the also the principle behind the transmitting of light waves through transparent fiber
optic cable for communication purposes.
Example 2
The speed of light in a particular piece of glass is 2.0 x 108 m/s, and the speed of light in
water is 2.3 x 108 m/s.
(a) Find the index of refraction for
i. the glass
ii. water
(b) A sheet of this glass is placed over a tank full of water. Laser light is incident on the
glass from the air above the glass at an angle of 40º. Determine whether or not the light
passes into the water, and, if it does, find the angle of refraction of the light in the water.
Solution
c 3.0 x10 8 m / s
(a) i. n g = = = 1.5
v g 2.0 x10 8 m / s
c 3.0 x10 8 m / s
ii. n w = = = 1.3
v w 2.3 x10 8 m / s
(b) First, let’s find the critical angle for the light traveling from the glass to the water.
n   1.3 
θ c = sin  w  = sin   = 60°
 ng   1.5 
If the light passes from the glass toward the water at an angle greater than 60º, it will
totally internally reflect inside the glass. The angle of refraction inside the glass can be
found by
nair sin θ air = n g sin θ g
sin θ air  sin 40 
θg = = sin −1  = 25.4°
ng  1.5 
297
Since the angle of the light in the glass less than 60º, the light will refract in the water.
The angle of refraction in the water can be found by
n g sin θ g = n w sin θ w
 n g sin θ g  −1  (1.5) sin 25.4 
θ w = sin −1   = sin   = 29.7°
 nw   1.3 
40º
air
θg glass
water
θw
26.5 The Dispersion of Light: Prisms and Rainbows

Each color in the spectrum refracts just a little differently than every other color. This is
why we can separate white light into its component colors by passing it through a prism.
The shorter wavelengths slow down and bend more than the longer wavelengths, so
violet bends the most, and red the least:
Red
Violet
Glass
298
Example 3
Yellow
Glass
30˚
Violet
30˚
The glass plate shown above has an index of refraction that depends on the wavelength of
the light that enters it. The index of refraction is 1.54 for yellow light of wavelength 5.80
x 10-9 m in the air and 1.62 for violet light of wavelength 4.20 x 10-9 m in the air. Both
the yellow and violet beams of light enter the glass from the left at the same angle of 30º
above the normal, are refracted inside the glass, and exit the glass on the right.
(a) Determine the following for each color for the time the light is inside the glass.
i. the speed of each color in the glass
ii. the wavelength of each color in the glass
iii. the frequency of each color in the glass
(b) On the figure above, sketch the approximate paths of both the yellow and the violet
rays as they pass through the glass and then exit into the air.
(c) The figure below represents a hollow space in a large piece of the type of glass
described above. On this figure, sketch the approximate path of the yellow and the violet
rays as they pass through the hollow space and back into the glass.
Y glass
air
299
Solution
(a) i.
c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
vY = = = 1.95 x10 8 m / s
nY 1.54
c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
vV = = = 1.85 x10 8 m / s
nV 1.62
ii. Since the frequency of the light does not change as the beam passes from one medium
to another, the wavelength is proportional to the speed.
λ 5.80 x10 −7 m
λY = air = = 3.76 x10 −7 m
nY 1.54
λ air 4.20 x10 −7 m
λV = = = 2.59 x10 −7 m
nV 1.62
iii. The frequency of each color is the same in the glass and in the air.
c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
fY = = = 5.17 x1014 Hz
λ air −7
5.80 x10 m
c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
fV = = = 7.14 x1014 Hz
λ air −7
4.20 x10 m
(b) Violet light slows down more than yellow light, and bends its path more than yellow
light. Both beams bend toward the normal line inside the glass, and away from the
normal line (at 30º) when they exit the glass into the air again.
Yellow
Glass
30˚
Violet
30˚
(c) Since each beam of light is going from a more dense medium to a less dense medium,
they will bend away from the normal as they enter the air, and toward the normal as they
enter the glass again. Again, violet light will bend more than yellow light.
300
Y glass
air
26.6 - 26.8 Lenses, The Formation of Images by Lenses, and The Thin-
Lens Equation and Magnification Equation
Lenses operate on the principle of refraction. A diverging (concave) lens is a lens which
is thicker on the edges than it is in the middle, and it diverges the light rays that pass
through it:
The focal point of a diverging lens can be found by extending the diverging rays back
behind the lens until they seem to meet.
A converging (or convex) lens is a lens which is thicker in the middle than on the edges,
and it converges parallel rays that pass through it:
f f
When you read the words diverging and converging, or convex and concave, be sure you
identify whether the question is asking you about lenses or mirrors. The answers
associated with lenses might be quite different than those associated with mirrors!
301
Just as in the case of the concave mirror, a converging lens can create an image which
can be real or virtual, upright or inverted, larger or smaller in size, or the same size as
the object. It all depends on where the object is placed relative to the focal length of the
lens. Since the AP Physics B exam typically focuses on the converging reather than the
diverging lens, we will look at some examples involving the converging lens.
The ray diagrams for the converging lens are very similar to the ray diagrams for the
concave mirror, as are the equations listed above for relating the focal length of the lens,
the object distance, image distance, and magnification.
Example 4
A converging (convex) lens has a focal length of 15.0 cm. A 5.0-cm tall candle is placed
at a distance of 40.0 cm to the left of the lens.
lens. State whether the image is real or virtual, upright or inverted, and larger, smaller, or
the same size as the object (candle).
(b) Using the lens and magnification equations, verify your results from part (a).
Solution
(a) To find out what kind of image will be formed by the lens, we will draw two rays: (1)
one ray from the flame entering the lens parallel to the principal axis and bending through
the focal point, and (2) another ray from the flame which passes straight through the
center of the lens without bending. The image is formed at the location of the intersection
of these two rays:
1
2
cm
45 30 15 15 30 45
We see that in the case where the object (candle) distance from the lens is greater than
twice the focal length, the image is inverted and reduced in size. The image is also real,
so if we placed a screen at the location of the image, we would see the projection of a
small inverted candle. The image formed by a converging lens is real if the object
distance is greater than the focal length.
From the diagram, let’s say we measure the image distance at 23 cm from the center of
the lens, and the image is measured to be 3.0 cm tall.
302
(b) Using the lens and magnification equations, we can solve the image distance:
1 1 1
= +
f do di
1 1 1
= +
15.0 cm 40.0cm d i
d i = 24.0 cm
Note that our measurement of the image distance is very close to the calculated value
within reasonable experimental error.
The height of the candle can be found by

h d
m= i =− i
ho do
− ho d i − (5.0 cm )(24.0cm )
hi = = = −3.0 cm
do 40.0 cm
Again, the negative sign indicates the image is inverted.
If we place the candle at a distance from the lens equal to the focal length, our two rays
would emerge parallel to each other, and no image would be formed.
If we place the candle inside the focal length of the lens, we get a result similar to the
same case for a concave mirror.
Example 5
A converging lens has a focal length of 30.0 cm. A 5.0-cm tall candle is placed at a
distance of 10.0 cm in front of the lens.
lens. State whether the image is real or virtual, upright or inverted, and larger, smaller, or
the same size as the object (candle).
(b) Using the lens and magnification equations, verify your results from part (a).
Solution
(a)
cm
45 30 15 15 30 45
303
With the candle placed inside the focal length, our two rays diverge as they emerge from
the lens. No image is formed on the side opposite to the candle, but extending the rays
backward, we find that they seem to originate on the same side as the candle. The point
from which they seem to originate is where a virtual image of the candle is formed.
From the diagram, let’s say we measure the image distance at 17.0 cm from the center of
the lens, and the image is measured to be 8.0 cm tall.
(b) Using the lens and magnification equations, we can solve the image distance:
1 1 1
= +
f do di
1 1 1
= +
30.0 cm 10.0cm d i
d i = −15.0 cm
The height of the candle can be found by

h d
m= i =− i
ho do
− ho d i − (5.0 cm )(− 15.0cm )
hi = = = +7.5 cm
do 10.0 cm
The positive sign indicates the image is upright.
A summary of the images formed by a converging lens and a converging mirror is listed
in the table below, where d o is the distance from the candle to the object and f is the focal
length of the lens or mirror. For a converging lens, a positive (+) image distance d i
implies that the image is formed on the opposite side of the lens as the object, and a
negative (-) image distance implies that the image is formed on the same side as the
object. This sign convention is just the opposite for a converging (concave) mirror.
Object placed Image real or virtual upright or enlarged or
at: distance d i inverted reduced
d o > 2f + real inverted reduced
d o = 2f + real inverted same size
f < d o < 2f + real inverted enlarged
do = f No image No image No image No image
do < f - virtual upright enlarged
Practice
Verify the results in the table above by drawing the ray diagrams below.
3f 2f f f 2f 3f
304
3f 2f f f 2f 3f
3f 2f f f 2f 3f

2 3
4
glass
5
2. The speed of light in a piece of glass

1. A beam of light passes from the air is 1.5 x 108 m/s. What is the index of
through a thick piece of glass as shown. refraction of the glass?
Which of the following angles is the (A) 2
angle of refraction? (B) 1.5
(A) 1 (C) 0.67
(B) 2 (D) 0.33
(C) 3 (E) 0.2
(D) 4
(E) 5
305
3. A beam of light passes from air into 7. A candle is placed on the principal
water. Which of the following axis of a convex lens at a distance of 10
statements is true? cm from the lens. The focal length of the
(A) The angle of incidence is greater lens is 20 cm. The image formed will be
than the angle of refraction in the (A) real, upright, and enlarged
water. (B) real, inverted, and enlarged
(B) The angle of incidence is less than (C) real, inverted, and smaller
the angle of refraction in the water. (D) virtual, upright, and enlarged
(C) The angle of incidence is equal to (E) virtual, upright, and smaller
the angle of refraction in the water.
(D) The frequency of the light decreases. 8. A candle is placed on the principal
(E) The frequency of the light increases. axis of a convex lens at a distance of 20
cm from the lens. The image formed is
4. Total internal reflection occurs when magnified 3 times. The image distance is
(A) light passes from air into water. (A) 7 cm
(B) light refracts as it exits glass into air. (B) 20 cm
(C) light reflects off of a mirror. (C) 60 cm
(D) light passing through glass is (D) 90 cm
reflected inside the glass. (E) 120 cm
(E) the angle of incidence is less than
the critical angle. 9. A beam of green light and a separate
beam of blue light enter a converging
5. Which of the following is true of a lens parallel to the principal axis. Which
diverging lens? of the following statements is true?
(A) Incoming parallel rays passing (A) The focal length of the green light is
through the lens converge to a focal greater than the focal length of the
point. blue light.
(B) The lens is thinner in the center than (B) The focal length of the green light is
on the edges. less than the focal length of the blue
(C) The lens is thicker in the center than light.
on the edges. (C) The focal length of the green light is
(D) Light must enter it parallel to the equal to the focal length of the blue
principal axis. light
(E) The lens must be flat on one side. (D) The green light will be absorbed in
the lens, and the blue light will be
6. A candle is placed on the principal transmitted through the lens.
axis of a convex lens at a distance of 30 (E) The blue light will be absorbed in the
cm from the lens. The focal length of the lens, and the green light will be
lens is 10 cm. The image formed will be transmitted through the lens.
(A) real, upright, and enlarged
(B) real, inverted, and enlarged
(C) real, inverted, and smaller
(D) virtual, upright, and enlarged
(E) virtual, upright, and smaller
306

1. (15 points)
60˚ 60˚
A beam of light is directed from the air toward a glass prism in the shape of an equilateral
triangle. The index of refraction of the glass is 1.47.
(a) On the diagram above, sketch the path of the beam of light in the prism, and as it exits the
prism. Be sure to use a straight-edge to draw the path of the light in each region.
(b) Calculate the angle from a line normal to the surface of the right face of the prism at which
the beam exits the prism.
The prism is actually the top of a convex lens of focal length 50.0 cm. In addition to this lens,
you are given a lens holder, an optical bench on which the lens and holder can be placed, a 5.0-
cm tall candle and matches, and a screen on a holder which can be mounted on the optical bench.
Your teacher tells you that you are to produce an image on the screen which is twice as tall as the
candle itself.
(c) On the diagram below, draw and label the equipment so that it is assembled in such a way as
to produce this image. Be sure and place each item at an accurate distance, and show any
calculations you used to help you find the accurate distances.
307
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 275 300
candle Lens Screen

and and
Holder Holder
(d) If the lens were placed under water, would the focal length of the lens increase, decrease, or
remain the same as in air? Explain.
Multiple Choice
1. E
Angle 5 is the angle of refraction, as measured from the normal line in the glass.
2. A
c 3 x10 8 m / s
n= = =2
v 1.5 x10 8 m / s
3. A
When the light enters the water, the beam bends toward the normal line, causing the angle of
refraction to be less than the angle of incidence The frequency remains constant.
4. D
Total internal reflection implies that no light exits the glass since it is reflected inside the glass.
5. B
A diverging lens is also called a concave lens, and is thinner in the center than on the edges.
6. C
The candle is placed at a distance greater than twice the focal length, and so the image formed
will be real, inverted, and smaller than the candle.
308
7. D
The candle is placed at a distance less than the focal length, and so the image formed will be
virtual, upright, and enlarged. This is the case for a magnifying glass.
8. C
If the image is 3 times larger than the object, the image distance must be 3 times larger than the
object distance.
9. A
Green has a longer wavelength than blue, and longer wavelengths travel at a higher speed than
shorter wavelengths in glass. Thus, the green light undergoes a smaller change in speed in the
glass, and therefore bends less than blue, producing a longer wavelength.
(a) 3 points
N
30˚
θ2 θ4
θ3
60˚ 60˚
(b) 5 points
The angle of refraction θ 2 in the glass can be found by Snell’s law:
 sin θ1  −1  sin 30 
θ 2 = sin −1   = sin  = 19.9°
 n glass   1.47 
Using this angle and some geometry gives the angle of incidence θ 3 = 40.1º for the beam before
it exits the prism. Then the refracted angle θ 4 as the light exits the prism is
 n glass sin (θ 3 ) −1  (1.47 ) sin (40.1) 
θ 4 = sin −1   = sin   = 71.3°
 nair   1 
(c) 5 points
First, let’s choose an object distance and calculate the corresponding image distance. If we are to
produce a real image twice as large as the object, we must place the candle between f and 2f such
that the image distance is twice the object distance (d i = 2d o ). Using the lens equation:
309
1 1 1
= +
f do di
1 1 1
= +
f d o 2d o
1 3
=
f 2d o
1 3
=
50.0cm 2d o
d o = 75.0cm
d i = 150.0cm
So we can place the candle at 0, the lens at 75, and the screen at 75 + 150 = 225.
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 275 300
(d) 2 points
The focal length of the lens in the water would be greater, since there would be less of a change
in speed of the light between the glass and the water as compared to the glass and the air.
Air
f f
Water
f f
310
Chapter 27 Interference and the Wave Nature of Light
Chapter 27
INTERFERENCE AND THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
PREVIEW
Wave optics is the study of the wave nature of light. Because of its wave nature, light can
undergo phenomena such as superposition, diffraction, and interference. Light diffracting
through a single-slit or double-slit opening will interfere constructively and destructively,
producing bright fringes, or antinodes, and dark fringes, or nodes, respectively. When
light enters a thin transparent film, reflects off of a surface beneath the film, and emerges
from the film once again, the light waves may be in phase or out of phase, depending on
the thickness of the film. The pattern produced is called thin-film interference.
The content contained in sections 1 – 5, 7, and 10 of chapter 27 of the textbook is

QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
constructive interference
addition of two or more light waves which are in phase, resulting in a light wave
of increased amplitude (brightness)
destructive interference
addition of two or more light waves which are out of phase resulting in a light
wave of decreased amplitude
diffraction of light
the spreading of a wave beyond the edge of a barrier or through an opening
diffraction grating
material containing many parallel lines which are very closely spaced so that
when light is passed through the lines, an interference pattern is produces
geometrical optics
the study of the straight line motion of light and the reflection and refraction of
light
principal maxima of a grating
the bright fringes of light produced by a diffraction grating
superposition of light waves
the addition of the electric fields of two or more light waves to roduce the electric
field of a new wave
thin-film interference
the interference of light as a result of part of the light wave passing through the
film and part of it reflecting off the surface of the film
311
wave (physical) optics

the study of the wave nature of light including interference and diffraction
mλ
sin θ = , m = 0,1,2,3,... where
d
y
tan θ = θ = angle of spread of the light passing
L through a single or double slit
λvacuum
λ film = m = the integer representing the order of
n a fringe caused by the diffraction
mλ film and interference of light
t= , m = 0,1,2,3,.. y = distance from the center of the
2
central bright line produced on a
(destructive interference)
screen by the interference of light
 1 and the center of another bright line
 m + λ film
t=
2 (antinode) of light produced on the
, m = 0,1,2,3,.. screen
2
L = distance from the diffraction grating
(constructive interference)
and the screen on which the
mλ
sinθ = , m = 0,1,2,3,.. interference pattern is produced.
W λ = wavelength of light
n = index of refraction
t = thickness of a thin film
W = width of the bright central antinode
produced on a screen by light
passing through a
single slit

27.1 – 27.2 The Principle of the Linear Superposition, and Young’s

Double-Slit Experiment
As discussed in an earlier chapter, diffraction is the bending of a wave around a barrier or

through an opening. If we pass a light wave through a narrow single slit, it will behave
very similarly to the water waves discussed earlier, with the edges of the light waves
lagging behind the center of the waves. If we place a screen opposite to the single-slit
opening, we would see a bright light near the center of the screen with narrow lines
312
becoming dimmer toward the edges of the screen. These lines form because of
interference from light waves arriving from different locations within the slit.
Waves Intensity
1st min
θ
D Central max
θ
1st min
If we replace the single-slit opening with a double-slit opening, the pattern on the screen
changes. As the light passes through the two openings, it becomes two sources of light
waves instead of one. These two light waves behave like the semi-circular water waves,
interfering constructively in some places and destructively in others. The pattern on the
screen would consist of a central bright band of light, with alternating light and dark
bands toward the edges of the screen:
Waves Intensity 2nd bright fringe (m=2)
1st bright fringe (m=1)
d θ
Central max (m=0)
θ
1st bright fringe (m=1)
2nd bright fringe (m=2)

λ
The bright bands on the screen are the places where constructive interference is occurring
(antinodes) and the dark bands are a result of destructive interference (nodes). In 1801,
Thomas Young was able to measure the wavelength of light waves using this double-slit
diffraction pattern. He found that for a given distance between the slits and length from
the slits to the screen, the width of the bright central antinode on the screen is
proportional to the wavelength of the light. Thus, red light would produce a wider bright
central band than violet light.
313
Consider the monochromatic (one color) light passing through a double-slit and creating
an interference pattern of nodes and antinodes on the screen at the right. The pattern of
light on the screen is represented by the graph of light intensity I as a function of position
y.
P
L΄ Q
y
d θ
L y
θ
Intensity
The intensity graph shows a bright central antinode in the center of the screen, and the
next brightest antinodes above and below the central antinode. We call these antinodes
above and below the central antinode the first-order bright lines.
The wavelength of the light can be found by the equation
mλ = d sin θ
where m = 1 (first order), d is the distance between the slits, and θ is the angle between
the line of length L drawn from the center of the slits to the center of the central antinode,
and the length L′ from the center of the slits to the center of the first-order antinode.
If the angle θ is small, say, less than 10°, we can approximate the wavelength by
assuming the small-angle approximation:
y
sin θ ≈ tan θ =
L
Then
 y
λ = d sin θ = d  
L
We might call this equation a first-order approximation of the wavelength of the light.
314
If we consider the point P on the screen, we see that it is located at the second-order
bright line, or m = 2. A line drawn from the lower slit to point P differs in path length
from a line drawn from the slits to point P by a path difference of mλ, or in this case 2λ.
If m is a whole number, the light rays from the two slits will interfere constructively, and
3
if m is not a whole number, such as m = at point Q on the screen, the light rays will
2
interfere destructively.
Example 1
A particular color of light is passed through the double-slit shown below. The distance
between the slits d = 1.40 x 10-4 m, and the length from the slits to the screen is L = 2. 50
m. The second-order bright fringe is measured to be y = 2.07 x 10-2 m from the bright
central antinode. The wavelengths of several colors of light are listed below.
Color Wavelength
red 664 nm
orange 622 nm
yellow 580 nm
green 520 nm
(a) Which color was passed through the slits?

(b) Find the distance y 3 to the third-order bright fringe for this color.
Q y
θ
d
Intensity
Solution
(a) The angle θ can be found by
 y  2.07 x10 −2 m 
θ = tan −1   = tan −1   = 0.47°
L  2.50m 
315
Then the wavelength of the light is
λ=
d sin θ
=
( )
1.40 x10 −4 m sin (0.47°)
= 5.80 x10 −7 m
m 2
The color of light is yellow.
 mλ 
(b) θ = sin 
−1
 = sin  
(
−1  (3) 5.80 x10
−7
m )  = 0.71°
−4 
 d   1.4 x10 m 
y 3 = L tan θ = (2.50m ) tan (0.71m ) = 3.11x10 −2 m
27.3 Thin-Film Interference

If you hold a compact disc (CD) at an angle to a light source, you see colors of light
reflecting from the surface of the CD. Different angles of incidence reflect different
colors. There is a thin transparent film on the reflecting (mirrored) surface of the CD
which separates the colors. But the colors which are reflected depend on the refraction,
reflection, and interference of the light.
Consider a thin film with an index of refraction n film and thickness t which is on the
surface of glass with a higher index of refraction n glass . If monochromatic light is incident
on the film from the air at a small angle to the normal, some of the light is reflected, and
some of it is refracted in the film and reflected off the surface of the glass:
air
film
t
glass
The ray which is refracted in the film eventually emerges parallel to the ray reflected off
the surface of the film, but has traveled a longer distance. If the incident light enters and
exits the film perpendicular to the surface of the film, then the extra distance traveled by
the light ray in the film is twice the thickness of the film, or 2t. The two emerging rays
can interfere with each other, If the are in phase, that is, differ by a whole number of
wavelengths in the film (1λ, 2λ, 3λ,…), they will interfere constructively, and your eye
would see a bright light (antinode) reflected back into the air. If the two emerging rays
1 3 
are out of phase, that is, differ by a half number of wavelengths in the film  λ , λ ,...  ,
2 2 
316
they will interfere destructively, and the light reflected back to the air would be a
minimum (node). Whether the light rays are a whole or half number of wavelengths in or
out of phase depends on how much farther the refracted ray has to travel through the film,
which would be 2t. Thus, the condition for interference is
2t = mλ
1 3
where m = 1, 2, 3, …for constructive interference and m = λ , λ ,... for destructive
2 2
interference. Remember, the wavelength in the equation above is the wavelength in the
film, which can be found by
λ air
λ film =
n film
where n film is the index of refraction of the film.
Example 2
Color Wavelength
red 664 nm
orange 622 nm
yellow 580 nm
green 520 nm
nair = 1.00
air
Surface 1
film nfilm = 1.35

351 nm
Surface 2
opaque
glass t
The surface of an opaque glass plate is coated with a transparent thin film. A beam of
monochromatic light traveling in air is incident practically perpendicular to Surface 1 as
shown above. The reflected and refracted angles are exaggerated for clarity. The beam is
partially transmitted through the film and partially reflected off the surface of the film
and glass.
(a) Calculate the wavelength of the light in the thin film.

(b) If the thickness of the film is 351 nm, which color from the table above will be
reflected back through the film and into the air at maximum brightness (intensity)?
317
(c) Calculate the frequency of this light both in air and in the film.
Solution
c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
(a) v film = = = 2.22 x10 8 m / s
n film 1.35
(b) The light passes through the film, reflects off the glass, and passes back through the
film into the air. In a round trip through the film, the light covers a distance of
2(192.5 nm) = 385 nm. In order for the reflected light to be at maximum intensity, this
total distance would have to be a whole-number multiple of the wavelength of the
unknown color of light. For simplicity, let’s assume that this value is equal to the
wavelength in the film. Then the wavelength of the light in the air would be
λ air = n film λ film = (1.35)(385nm ) = 520 nm
The color incident on the film is green.
(c) Frequency does not change when light is refracted.

c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
f = = = 5.77 x1014 Hz
λ −7
5.20 x10 m

1. If light is passed through a narrow, 2. If light is passed through a double-slit

single-slit opening onto a screen, the opening onto a screen, the pattern
pattern of light produced on the screen is produced on the screen is
(A) alternating bright and dark lines of (A) a bright central band of light with
equal width. slightly-diminished alternating bright
(B) a bright central band of light with and dark bands called nodes and
much smaller, dimmer bands toward antinodes.
the edges. (B) a bright central band of light with
(C) concentric circles of light. tiny lines toward the edges of the
(D) one circle of light. screen.
(E) one band of light. (C) a large circle of light with tiny
circles around it.
(D) equally-sized concentric circles of
light.
(E) One antinode and no nodes.
318
3. Which of the following colors, when 6. In order to see the brightest reflection
passed through a double-slit opening, of light after passing through the film,
will produce the widest central band of which of the following must be true?
light? (A) the thickness of the film must be
(A) red greater than the wavelength.
(B) orange (B) the wavelength must be equal to half
(C) yellow the thickness of the film
(D) green (C) the wavelength must be equal to 4
(E) blue times the thickness of the film.
(D) the wavelength must be a multiple of
4. Light passes through a double-slit, twice the thickness of the film.
producing bright and dark bands on a (E) the thickness of the film must be less
screen. The dark bands are caused by than the wavelength.
waves from each slit
(A) interfering constructively.
(B) meeting exactly one wavelength out
of phase.
(C) meeting exactly one-half wavelength
out of phase.
(D) meeting exactly one-fourth
wavelength out of phase.
(E) missing the screen altogether
Questions 5 – 6:
Light is incident on a thin film which

covers a mirrored surface.
5. The processes which must occur to

produce a bright reflection are
(A) reflection, diffraction, interference
(B) reflection, refraction, interference
(C) diffraction and refraction only
(D) refraction and reflection only
(E) interference, polarization, refraction
319

1. (15 points)
y(mm)
3.00
2.00
1.00
d 0
L = 4.50
1.00
2.00
3.00
Violet light of wavelength λ = 4.20 x 10-7 m is shined through two slits which are a distance d =
1.50 mm apart. The light lands on a screen a distance L = 4.50 m away.
(a) Determine the position of the first- and second-order bright fringes on the screen produced by
the light passing through the slit.
(b) On the diagram of the screen above, sketch the light intensity vs. screen position y, with the
light intensity maximum at the location of the bright fringes.
(c) For the first minimum in the interference pattern, determine the path difference mλ between
the light arriving at this point from the two slits.
(d) Briefly but concisely describe how the interference pattern would change if we change each
of the following. Explain your reasoning.
i. The distance between the slits is increased.
ii. Red light is used instead of violet light.
iii. The screen is moved to a distance L = 9 m away from the slits.
320
Multiple Choice
1. B
The single-slit diffraction pattern creates a central antinode which is much larger than the
fringes.
2. A
Light passing through a double-slit creates a prominent central fringe and bright fringes on either
side of the central antinode.
3. A
Red has the longest wavelength, and the width of the central antinode is proportional to the
wavelength.
4. C
If the waves meet one-half wavelength out of phase, the light undergoes destructive interference,
creating dark bands.
5. B
Reflection of the light from the film and the mirror, refraction through the film, and interference
of the two reflected rays create the bright reflection of the light.
6. D
The equation that governs the bright reflection is 2t = mλ.
(a) 4 points
 mλ 
θ1 = sin −1
 = sin  
(
−1  (1) 4.20 x10 m
−7
)  = 0.016°
−3 
 d   1.50 x10 m 
y1 = L tan θ1 = (4.50 m ) tan (0.016°) = 1.26 x10 −3 m = 1.26 mm
θ 2 = sin −1 
 mλ 
 = sin 
(
−1  (2 ) 4.20 x10 m
−7
)  = 0.032°
 1.50 x10 −3 m
 d   
y 2 = L tan θ 2 = (4.50 m ) tan (0.032°) = 2.52 x10 −3 m = 2.52 mm
321
(b) 3 points y(mm)
3.00
2.00
1.00
θ2
θ1
d 0
L = 4.50 m
1.00
2.00
3.00
Intensity
(c) 2 points
(
1
)
Path Difference mλ =   4.20 x10 −7 m = 2.10 x10 −7 m
2
(d) 6 points
λL
For small angles, y = . So,
d
i. If d is increased, y is increased and the bright fringes will be farther apart.
ii. Red wavelength is greater than violet wavelength, so y would also be greater for red.
iii. If L is increased, y increases, so the bright fringes would be farther apart.
322
Chapter 28 Special Relativity
Chapter 28
SPECIAL RELATIVITY
The content of this chapter in the textbook is not included on the AP Physics B exam.
323
Chapter 29 Particles and Waves
Chapter 29
PARTICLES AND WAVES
PREVIEW
A photon is the smallest particle of light, and has an energy which is proportional to its
frequency. The photon nature of light is the principle behind the photoelectric effect, in
which the absorption of photons of a certain frequency causes electrons to be emitted
from a metal surface. The Compton effect also verifies the photon nature of light by
showing that momentum is conserved in a collision between a photon and an electron.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that both the position and momentum of a
subatomic particle cannot be measured precisely. Since light waves exhibit particle
(photon) properties, de Broglie suggested that particles, such as electrons, can exhibit
wave properties.
The content contained in all sections of chapter 29 of the textbook is included on the AP
Physics B exam.
QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
blackbody radiation
the radiation emitted by a blackbody, or perfect emitter and absorber of light, due
to its temperature
Compton effect
the interaction of photons with electrons resulting in the increased wavelengths of
the photons and kinetic energy of the electrons
Compton wavelength of an electron
half the maximum wavelength change of a photon in a Compton scattering with
an electron
de Broglie wavelength
the wavelength associated with a moving particle with a momentum mv
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
the more accurately one determines the position of a subatomic particle, the less
accurately its momentum is known
photoelectric effect
the ejection of electrons from certain metals when exposed to light of a minimum
frequency
photon
the smallest particle of light
Planck’s constant
the quantity that results when the energy of a photon is divided by its frequency
324
quantized
a quantity that cannot be divided into smaller increments forever, for which there
exists a minimum, quantum increment
quantum mechanics
the study of the properties of matter using its wave properties
wave-particle duality
under certain circumstances, waves can behave like particles, and particles can
behave like waves
work function
the minimum energy required to release an electron from a metal
E = hf where
c = fλ
E = energy of a photon
Wo = hf o c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s
KEmax = hf − Wo = eVstop f = frequency of light
λ′ − λ =
h
(1 − cosθ ) W o = work function of a photoemissive
mc
surface (denoted by φ on the AP
h
p= Physics exam)
λ h = Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34 J s =
h 4.14 x 10-15 eV s
λ= f o = threshold frequency of a
mv
E = pc photoemissive surface
KE max = maximum kinetic energy of
electrons emitted in the
photoelectric effect
e = charge on one electron
V stop = voltage needed to stop the
emission of electrons
′
λ = wavelength of a photon after being
scattered by a collision with an
electron
θ = angle between the scattered photon
and electron after they collide
p = momentum of a photon
m = mass of a moving particle
v = speed or velocity

325
29.1 – 29.3 The Wave-Particle Duality, Blackbody Radiation and

Planck’s Constant and Photons and the Photoelectric Effect
In prior chapters we treated light as a wave. But there are circumstances when light
behaves more like it is made up of individual bundles of energy, separate from each
other, but sharing a wavelength, frequency, and speed. The quantum of light is called the
photon.
c
c
light wave photon
In the late 19th century an effect was discovered by Heinrich Hertz which could not be
explained by the wave model of light. He shined ultraviolet light on a piece of zinc metal,
and the metal became positively charged. Although he did not know it at the time, the
light was causing the metal to emit electrons. This effect of using light to cause electrons
to be emitted from a metal is called the photoelectric effect. According to the theory of
light at the time, light was considered a wave, and should not be able to “knock”
electrons off of a metal surface. At the turn of the 20th century, Max Planck showed that
light could be treated as tiny bundles of energy called photons, and the energy of a
photon was proportional to its frequency. Thus, a graph of photon energy E vs. frequency
f looks like this:
Energy
∆E
slope = =h
∆f
ΔE
Δf
frequency
The slope of this line is a constant that occurs many times in the study of quantum
phenomena called Planck’s constant. Its symbol is h, and its value is 6.62 x 10-34 J s (or
J/Hz). The equation for the energy of a photon is
E = hf
c
or, since f = ,
λ
hc
E=
λ
326
The energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency, but inversely proportional to its
wavelength. This means that a violet has a higher frequency and energy than a red
photon.
Oftentimes when dealing with small amounts of energy like that of photons or electrons,
we may prefer to use a very small unit of energy called the electron-volt (eV). The
conversion between joules and electron-volts is
1 eV = 1.6 x10 −19 J
Planck’s constant can be expressed in terms of electron-volts as
h = 4.14 x10 −15 eV s
In 1905, Albert Einstein used Planck’s idea of the photon to explain the photoelectric
effect: one photon of energy which is higher than the energy (work function φ)which
binds the electron to the metal is absorbed by one electron in the metal surface, giving the
electron enough energy be released from the metal. Any energy left over from the photon
after the work function has been met becomes the kinetic energy of the electron.
Photon E
KE max = E photon − φ
φ
KE max = hf − hf 0
metal
e
where f o is called the threshold frequency, which KE
is the minimum frequency the incoming photon
must have to dig the electron out of the metal surface.
Example 1
The metal sodium has a threshold frequency which corresponds to yellow light. Describe
what will happen if
(a) yellow light is shined on the sodium surface,
(b) red light is shined on the metal surface,
(c) green light is shined on the metal surface,
(d) bright green light is shined on the metal surface.
Solution
(a) If yellow light is shined on a sodium surface, the yellow photons will be absorbed by
electrons in the metal, causing them to be released, but there will be no energy left over
for the electrons to have any kinetic energy.
327
(b) Red light has a lower frequency and energy than yellow light, therefore red photons
do not have enough energy to release the electrons from the sodium surface.
(c) Green light has a higher frequency and energy than yellow light, and therefore a green
photon will be absorbed by a sodium electron and the electron will be released from the
metal and have kinetic energy.
(d) If a brighter (more photons) green light is shined on the surface, more electrons will
be emitted, since one photon can be absorbed by one electron. If these electrons are
funneled into a circuit, we can use them as current in an electrical device.
The photoelectric effect is the principle behind any process in which light produces
electricity, such as a solar calculator or an auto-focus camera.
The graph of maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron vs. frequency of light incident
on a sodium surface would look like this:
Kinetic
Energy
∆E
slope = =h
∆f
frequency
R O Y G B V
Note that the electrons have no kinetic energy up to the threshold frequency (color), and
then their kinetic energy is proportional to the frequency of the incoming light.
Example 2
photon
photoemissive
surface
Adjustable Voltage
328
Light is shined on a photoemissive surface of work function φ = 2.0 eV and electrons are
released with a kinetic energy KE max = 4.0 eV.
(a) What voltage, called the stopping voltage V stop , would be necessary to stop the
emission of electrons?
(b) Determine the energy of each of the incoming photons in eV and in Joules.
(c) Determine the frequency of the incoming photons in Hz.
(d) If photons of wavelength λ = 2.5x10-7m were shined on this photoemissive surface,

would electrons be emitted from the surface? Justify your answer.
Solution
(a) Stopping the emission of electrons requires work equal to the maximum kinetic
energy of the electrons:
KE max = W = q eVstop
Vstop = =
(
KE max (4.0 eV ) 1.6 x10 −19 J / eV )
= 4.0 Volts
qe 1.6 x10 −19 C
Thus, it would take 4.0 V to stop electrons with a kinetic energy of 4.0 eV, as we might
expect.
E photons = KEmax + φ = 4.0 eV + 2.0 eV = 6.0 eV

( )
(b)
6.0eV 1.6 x10 −19 J / eV = 9.6 x10 −19 J
E photon 9.6 x10 −19 J

(c) f = = −34
= 1.5 x1015 Hz
h 6.6 x10 J / Hz
(d) The wavelength of these incoming photons corresponds to a frequency of
c 3 x10 8 m / s
f = = = 1.2 x1015 Hz
λ 2.5 x10 −7 m
Now we need to check to see if this frequency is higher than the threshold frequency f 0 :
φ 2.0eV
f0 = = −15
= 4.8 x1014 Hz.
h 4.14 x10 eV / Hz
The incoming frequency is higher than the threshold frequency, so electrons will be
emitted from the metal surface.
329
29.4 The Momentum of a Photon and the Compton Effect

Since a photon has energy, does it follow that it has momentum? Recall in an earlier
chapter that we defined momentum as the product of mass and velocity. But a photon has
no mass. It turns out that in quantum physics, photons do have momentum which is
inversely proportional to its wavelength. The equation for the momentum of a photon is
h
p=
λ
Photons can and do impart momentum to sub-atomic particles in collisions that follow
the law of conservation of momentum. This phenomena was experimentally verified by
Arthur Compton in 1922. Compton aimed x-rays of a certain frequency at electrons, and
when they collided and scattered, the x-rays were measured to have a lower frequency
indicating less energy and momentum. The scattering of x-ray photons from an electron
with a loss in energy of the x-ray photon is called the Compton effect. It is difficult to
understand how a photon, having only energy and no mass, can collide with a particle
like an electron and change its momentum, but this has been verified experimentally
many times.
Example 3
Before After
c c
electron electron
photon photon
A photon is fired at an electron which is initially at rest. The photon strikes the electron
and reverses its direction, as shown in the diagram representing the photon and electron
after the collision.
(a) Determine the shift in wavelength of the photon as a result of the collision.
The photon is an x-ray with a wavelength of 6.62 x 10-11 m.

(b) Determine
i. the initial momentum of the photon before the collision with the electron.
ii. the final momentum of the photon after the collision with the electron.
(c) Find the final momentum of the electron after the collision.
330
Solution
(a) The Compton equation gives the shift in wavelength:
6.62 x10 −34 J / Hz
′
λ −λ =
h
(1 − cosθ ) = [1 − cos180°] = 4.84 x10 −12 m
mc ( −31
)(
9.11x10 kg 3 x10 m / s8
)
−34
h 6.62 x10 J / Hz
(b) i. p = = = 1.00 x10 −23 kgm / s
λ −11
6.62 x10 m
ii. The momentum of the photon after the collision p΄ corresponds to the new
wavelength λ΄:
h h 6.62 x10 −34 J / Hz
p′ = = = = − 9.32 x10 − 24 kgm / s
λ ′ λ + ∆λ 6.62 x10 m + 4.84 x10 m
−11 −12
The momentum of the photon is given a negative sign, since it reverses direction after the
collision.
(c) By the law of conservation of momentum, the momentum lost by the photon must
have been gained by the electron.
( ) ( )
∆p = p ′ − p = − 9.32 x10 −24 kgm / s − 1.00 x10 −23 kgm / s = −1.93 x10 −23 kgm / s
lost by the photon. Thus, the momentum gained by the electron is 1.93 x 10-23 kgm/s.
29.5 The de Broglie Wavelength and the Wave Nature of Matter
In 1924, Louis de Broglie reasoned that if a wave such as light can behave like a particle,
having momentum, then why couldn’t particles behave like waves? If the momentum of a
h
photon can be found by the equation p = , then the wavelength can be found by
λ
h
λ= . De Broglie suggested that for a particle with mass m and speed v, we could write
p
h
the equation as λ = , and the wavelength of a moving particle could be calculated.
mv
This hypothesis was initially met with a considerable amount of skepticism until it was
shown by Davisson and Germer in 1927 that electrons passing through a nickel crystal
were diffracted through the crystal, producing a diffraction pattern on a photographic
plate. Thus, de Broglie’s hypothesis that particles could behave like waves was
experimentally verified. Nuclear and particle physicists must take into account the wave
behavior of subatomic particles in their experiments. We typically don’t notice the wave
properties of objects moving around us because the masses are large in comparison to
subatomic particles and the value for Planck’s constant h is extremely small. But the
wavelength of any moving mass is inversely proportional to the momentum of the object.
331
29.6 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Since a photon is the smallest and most unobtrusive measuring device we have available
to us, and even a photon has too large of a momentum to make accurate measurements of
the speed and position of sub-atomic particles, we must admit to an uncertainty that will
always exist in quantum measurements. This limit to accuracy at this level was
formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1928 and is called the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle. It can be stated like this:
There is a limit to the accuracy of the measurement of the speed (or momentum) and
position of any sub-atomic particle. The more accurately we measure the speed of a
particular particle, the less accurately we can measure its position, and vice-versa.

1. The smallest, discrete value of any 4. The threshold frequency of zinc for
quantity in physics is called the the photoelectric effect is in the
(A) atom ultraviolet range. Which of the following
(B) molecule will occur if x-rays are shined on a zinc
(C) proton metal surface?
(D) electron (A) No electrons will be emitted from
(E) quantum the metal.
(B) Electrons will be released from the
2. The smallest discrete value of metal but have no kinetic energy.
electromagnetic energy is called the (C) Electrons will be released from the
(A) photon metal and have kinetic energy.
(B) proton (D) Electrons will be released from the
(C) electron metal but then will immediately be
(D) neutron recaptured by the zinc atoms.
(E) quark (E) Electrons will simply move from one
zinc atom in the metal to another
3. Which of the following photons has zinc atom in the metal.
the highest energy?
(A) x-ray
(B) ultraviolet light
(C) green light
(D) microwave
(E) radio wave
332
5. A metal surface has a threshold

frequency for the photoelectric effect
which corresponds to green light. If blue
light is shined on this metal, 7. Which of the following is true of the
(A) no electrons will be emitted from the momentum of a photon?
metal. (A) It is proportional to the wavelength
(B) the number of emitted electrons is of the photon.
proportional to the brightness (B) It is inversely proportional to the
(intensity) of the blue light. wavelength of the photon.
(C) the electrons will have no kinetic (C) It is inversely proportional to the
energy. square of the wavelength of the
(D) more electrons will be emitted than photon.
if green light were shined on the (D) It is proportional to the mass of the
metal. photon.
(E) electrons will be emitted from the (E) It is equal to the energy of the
metal, but since the light is not photon.
green, only a few electrons will be
released. 8. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
implies that
6. Light is shined on a metal surface (A) Electrons are too small to be studied.
which exhibits the photoelectric (B) Every photon is exactly the same
effect according to the graph shown. size.
What color(s) correspond to the (C) The more you know about the
threshold frequency of the metal? momentum of an electron, the less
(A) red only you can know about its position.
(B) red and orange (D) The more you know about the
(C) red, orange, yellow, and green energy of a photon, the less you can
(D) blue only know about its frequency.
(E) blue, indigo, and violet (E) You cannot state with accuracy the
number of electrons in an atom.
KE
9. Which of the following statements is
true for the de Broglie wavelength of a
moving particle?
(A) It is never large enough to measure
(B) It is proportional to the speed of the
particle.
(C) It is inversely proportional to the
momentum of the particle.
R O Y G B V
(D) It is equal to Planck’s constant.
(E) It has no effect on the behavior of
electrons.
333
10. When a photon transfers momentum to an electron, the wavelength of the photon
(A) increases
(B) decreases
(C) remains the same
(D) is equal to the wavelength of the
electron
(E) is always in the x-ray range

1. (15 points)
photon
photoemissive
surface
Adjustable Voltage
Light of a certain wavelength is shined on a photoemissive surface, ejecting electrons as shown
above. The graph below show the maximum kinetic energy of each electron
(x 10-20 J) vs. frequency of the incoming light (x 1014 Hz).
(a) On the graph below, draw the line that is your estimate of the best straight-line fit to the data
points.
(b) Using your graph, find a value for Planck’s constant, and briefly explain how you found the
value.
(c) From the graph, estimate the threshold frequency of the photoemissive surface.
334
(d) Photons of frequency 7.0 x 1014 Hz are shined on the metal surface. Determine the
i. kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
ii. speed of the emitted electrons
iii. de Broglie wavelength of the emitted electrons.
Multiple Choice
1. E
The quantum is the smallest discrete value of any quantity, such as the electron for charge and
the photon for light.
2. A
A photon is the smallest bundle of light energy.
3. A
The x-ray has the highest frequency of the choices, and since energy is proportional to
frequency, has the highest energy as well.
335
4. C
Since the frequency of x-rays is higher than the ultraviolet threshold frequency, electrons will be
emitted from the metal and have kinetic energy left over.
5. B
After the threshold frequency is met, the number of photons (brightness) dictate how many
electrons are emitted, since one photon can release one electron. Thus, a brighter light will
release more electrons.
6. D
The electrons begin being released when blue light is shined on the metal, so blue has the
threshold (minimum) frequency for this metal.
7. B
Since the equation for the momentum of a photon is p = h/λ , the momentum is inversely
proportional to the wavelength of the photon, implying that a photon with a shorter wavelength
has a higher momentum than one with a longer wavelength.
8. C
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that you have to sacrifice your knowledge of the
position of any subatomic particle to know its momentum accurately, and vice-versa.
9. C
According to the equations for the de Broglie wavelength, the higher the momentum of the
particle, the shorter its wavelength.
10. A
A decrease in the photon’s momentum corresponds to an increase in the photon’s wavelength,
since momentum and wavelength are inversely proportional to each other.
(a) 3 points
The best-fit straight line represents the average of the data points, and therefore there would be
some data points above the line and some below the line. The best-fit line does not necessarily
connect the first and last points, and does not necessarily pass through any particular data point.
You should always use a straight-edge to draw a best-fit line that you know to be straight.
336
(b) 4 points
Planck’s constant is equal to the slope of the graph. Let’s choose two convenient points on the
line to find the slope, (4.0 x 1014 Hz, 0) and (8.0 x 1014 Hz, 20.0 x 10-20 J). Then the slope would
be
∆KE 20.0 x10 −20 J − 0
h= = = 5.7 x10 −34 J / Hz
∆f 8.0 x10 Hz − 4.5 x10 Hz
14 14
This value for h is close to the actual value of h within a reasonable margin of error.
(c) 2 points
The threshold frequency can be found by marking the place where the graph crosses the
frequency axis. From the graph, f 0 = 4.5 x 1014 Hz.
(d) 6 points
i. From the graph, the KE associated with the frequency of 7.0 x 1014 Hz is 14 x 10-20 J, or 1.4 x
10-19 J.
1
KE = mv 2
2
ii.
v=
2 KE
=
( )
2 1.4 x10 −19 J
= 5.5 x10 5 m / s
−31
m 9.1x10 kg
h 6.6 x10 −34 J / Hz
iii. λ = = = 1.3 x10 −9 m
( −31
)( 5
mv 9.1x10 kg 5.5 x10 m / s )
337
Chapter 30 The Nature of the Atom
Chapter 30
THE NATURE OF THE ATOM
PREVIEW
The atom is the smallest particle of an element that can be identified with that element.
The atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons which are in quantized, or
discrete, energy levels. An electron can only change energy levels when it absorbs or
emits energy. The energy emitted as a result of a downward energy level transition is
typically in the form of a photon, the smallest particle of light, and the energy of the
emitted photon is equal to the difference between the initial and final energy of the
electron.
The content contained in sections 2, 3, 4, and 11 of chapter 30 of the textbook is included

QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
atom
the smallest particle of an element that can be identified with that element; the
atom consists of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, and electrons in orbitals
around the nucleus.
electron
the smallest negatively charged particle; electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom
energy level
amount of energy an electron has while in a particular orbit around the
nucleus of an atom
excited state
the energy level of an electron in an atom after it has absorbed energy
ground state
the lowest energy level of an electron in an atom
ionization energy
the energy needed to completely remove an electron from its orbital in an atom
line spectrum
discrete lines which are emitted by a cool excited gas
principal quantum number
an integer number n which determines the total energy of an atom
quantum model of the atom
atomic model in which only the probability of locating an electron is known
x – rays
high frequency and energy electromagnetic waves which are produced when high
– energy electrons strike a metal target in an evacuated tube
338
hc where
E = hf =
λ
c = fλ E = energy of a photon
E photon = E f − Ei f = frequency of light
E f – E i = difference between a final
energy level of an electron in an
atom and its initial energy

30.2 Line Spectra

The ancient Greeks were the first to document the concept of the atom. They believed
that all matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles. In fact, the word atom comes from
the Greek word atomos, meaning “uncuttable”. But a working model of the atom didn’t
begin to take shape until J.J. Thomson’s discovery of the electron in 1897. He found that
electrons are tiny negatively charged particles and that all atoms contain electrons. He
also recognized that atoms are naturally neutral, containing equal amounts of positive and
negative charge, although he was not correct in his theory of how the charge was
arranged.
You may remember studying Thomson’s “plum-pudding” model of the atom, with
electrons floating around in positive fluid. A significant improvement on this model of
the atom was made by Ernest Rutherford around 1911, when he decided to shoot alpha
particles (helium nuclei) at very thin gold foil to probe the inner structure of the atom. He
discovered that the atom has a dense, positively charged nucleus with electrons orbiting
around it.
electron in
orbit
Nucleus
339
In 1913, Niels Bohr made an important improvement to the Rutherford model of the
atom. He observed that excited hydrogen gas gave off a spectrum of colors when viewed
through a spectrosope. But the spectrum was not continuous, that is, the colors were
bright, sharp lines which were separate from each other. It had long been known that
every low pressure, excited gas emitted its own special spectrum in this way, but Bohr
was the first to associate the bright-line spectra of these gases, particularly hydrogen,
with a model of the atom. Section 30.2 in your textbook has excellent photographs of
continuous and bright-line spectra.
He proposed that the electrons orbiting the nucleus of an atom do not radiate energy in
the form of light while they are in a particular orbit, but only when they change orbits.
Furthermore, an electron cannot orbit at just any radius around the nucleus, but only
certain selected (quantized) orbits.
30.3 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

The two postulates of the Bohr model of the atom are summarized below:
1. Electrons orbiting the nucleus of an atom can only orbit in certain quantized orbits,
and no others. These orbits from the nucleus outward are designated n =1, 2, 3…, and
the electron has energy in each of these orbits E 1 , E 2 , E 3 , and so on. The energies of
electrons are typically measured in electron-volts (eV). The lowest energy (in the
orbit nearest the nucleus) is called the ground state energy E 1 . (Fig. A)
n=2
n=1
E3 E3
E2
E2 E2
E1
photon photon E = E2-E1
E1 E1
Fig. A Fig. B Fig. C
2. Electrons can change orbits when they absorb or emit energy.

(a) When an electron absorbs exactly enough energy to reach a higher energy level, it
jumps up to that level. If the energy offered to the electron is not exactly enough
to raise it to a higher level, the electron will ignore the energy and let it pass.
(Fig. B)
(b) When an electron is in a higher energy level, it can jump down to a lower energy
level by releasing energy in the form of a photon of light. The energy of the
emitted photon is exactly equal to the difference between the energy levels the
electron moves between.
(Fig. C)
340
Example 1
Consider the energy level diagram for a particular atom shown below:
Energy above
ground state
E4 = 7 eV
E3 = 6 eV
E2 = 4 eV
E1 = 0
An electron begins in the ground state of this atom.
(a) How much energy must be absorbed by this electron to reach the 4th energy level?
(b) How many possible photons can be emitted from this atom if the electron starts in the
4th energy level? Sketch the possible transitions on the diagram above using arrows to
indicate a transition between levels.
(c) The electron drops from E 4 to E 2 and emits a photon, then drops from E 2 to E 1 and
emits a second photon.
i. Calculate the frequency and wavelength of the photon emitted when the electron
drops from E 4 to E 2 .
ii. Calculate the frequency and wavelength of the photon emitted when the electron
drops from E 2 to E 1 .
(d) Are either, both, or neither of the photons emitted in part (c) above in the visible
range? How can you tell?
Solution
(a) E = E 4 – E 1 = 7 eV – 0 eV = 7 eV
E4 = 7 eV
(b) Six possible transitions E3 = 6 eV
E2 = 4 eV
E1 = 0
341
(c) i. E 42 = E 4 – E 2 = 7 eV – 4 eV = 3 eV
E 3 eV
f = = −15
= 7.2 x1014 Hz
h 4.14 x10 eV / Hz
c 3 x10 8 m / s
λ= = 14
= 4.1x10 −7 m
f 7.2 x10 Hz
ii. E 21 = E 2 – E 1 = 4 eV – 0 eV = 4 eV
E 4 eV
f = = = 9.7 x1014 Hz
h 4.14 x10 −15 eV / Hz
c 3 x10 8 m / s
λ= = 14
= 3.1x10 −7 m
f 9.7 x10 Hz
(d) The range of visible wavelengths is about 4 x 10-7 m to 7 x 10-7 m. The photon
emitted in the transition from E 4 to E 2 is in this visible range, but the photon emitted in
the transition from E 2 to E 1 is not in this range.

1. An emission spectrum is produced

when
(A) electrons in an excited gas jump up
to a higher energy level and release
photons.
(B) electrons in an excited gas jump
down to a lower energy level and
release photons.
(C) electrons are released from the outer
orbitals of an excited gas.
(D) an unstable nucleus releases energy.
(E) light is shined on a metal surface and
electrons are released.
342
Energy above
ground state
E5 = 5 eV
E4 = 4 eV
E3 = 3 eV
E2 = 2 eV E5 = -0.54 eV
E4 = -0.85 eV
E1 = 0 E3 = -1.5 eV
2. Consider the electron energy level E2 = -3.4 eV
diagram for a particular atom shown. An
electron is in the ground state energy
E1 = -13.6 eV
level. If a photon of energy 6 eV is given
to the electron, which of the following
will occur? 3. Consider the electron energy level
(A) The electron will ignore the photon diagram for hydrogen shown. An
since the photon’s energy does not electron in the ground state of a
match the energy levels. hydrogen atom has an energy of
(B) The electron will absorb the photon, - 13.6 eV. Which of the following
jump up to the 5-eV level shown, energies is NOT a possible energy
and convert the remainder of the for a photon emitted from hydrogen?
photon’s energy into kinetic energy, (A) 1.9 eV
but will stay in the 5-eV energy (B) 13.6 eV
level. (C) 0.65 eV
(C) The electron will absorb the photon, (D) 11.1 eV
jump out of the atom completely, (E) 10.2 eV
and convert the remainder of the
photon’s energy into kinetic energy. 4. The reason why electrons can only
(D) The electron will absorb the photon, orbit at certain circumferences is
jump up to the 5-eV level, then back (A) some electrons are larger than others
down to the 4 eV level. (B) the energy of electrons gets smaller
(E) The electron will jump up to the 3- as the circumference gets larger
eV level, then immediately back (C) electrons do not radiate energy when
down the ground state. they are in a particular orbit
(D) the atom is mostly empty space
(E) a whole number of de Broglie
wavelengths of the electron must fit
into the orbit.
343

1. (10 points)
E=0
E4 = - 0.85 eV
E3 = -1.51 eV
E2 = -3.4 eV
E1 = -13.6 eV
The energy level diagram for hydrogen is shown above. A free electron comes close enough to
the hydrogen atom that it is captured and makes a transition to the third energy level of the atom.
Then the electron makes a transition to the first energy level.
(a) Sketch arrows on the diagram above representing the two transitions made by the
electron.
(b) Calculate the wavelength of the photon emitted as the electron makes the transition to
the third energy level.
While the electron is in the ground state it absorbs a 17-eV photon.
(c) Briefly describe what happens to the electron as a result of absorbing the 17-eV
photon.
(d) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the electron after absorbing the 17-eV photon.
344
Multiple Choice
1. B
When electrons jump back to lower energy levels, they emit energy as photons.
2. C
When an electron absorbs enough energy to completely escape the atom we say that the atom is
ionized, and the energy remaining, in this case 1 eV, is converted to kinetic energy.
3. D
An electron emits a photon of energy which corresponds exactly to the difference in two energy
levels, and 11.1 eV does not correspond to any energy differences in the hydrogen atom.
4. E
If a whole number of electron wavelengths does not fit into a particular circumference, the
electron wave would destructively interfere and could not exist in that orbit.

E=0
(a) 2 points
photon E4 = - 0.85 eV
(b) 3 points E3 = -1.51 eV
hc hc
λ= =
E E3 − 0 E2 = -3.4 eV
1240 eV nm
λ= = 821.2nm
1.51 eV
(c) 2 points photon
It takes 13.6 eV to release the
electron from the ground state, E1 = -13.6 eV
and the remaining energy of 3.4 eV
is the kinetic energy of the freed electron.
(d) 3 points
The speed of the ejected electron is
v=
2 KE
=
(
2(3eV ) 1.6 x10 −19 J / eV )
= 1.0 x10 6 m / s
−31
m 9.1x10 kg
h 6.6 x10 −34 J / Hz
λ= = = 7.1x10 −10 m
( −31
)( 6
mv 9.1x10 kg 1.0 x10 m / s )
345

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Chapter 11 Fluids

The content contained in sections 1 – 4, 6 – 10, and 12 of chapter 11 of the textbook is

Equations and Symbols

Ten Homework Problems

DISCUSSION OF SELECTED SECTIONS

11.1 - 11.2 Mass Density, and Pressure

• to be incompressible (so that its density does not change),

11.3 Pressure and Depth in a Static Fluid

1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa

This is approximately equal to 15 lbs/in2. In mechanics, it is often convenient to speak in

11.6 Archimedes Principle

Archimedes principle allows us to calculate the buoyant force acting on an object in a

Fbuoyant = ρ gV fluid displaced

A solid aluminum cylinder (ρ = 2700 kg/m3 )

i. a constant speed of 2 m/s

ii. Drawing the free-body diagram for the cylinder:

where the mass of the aluminum cylinder is ρ Al V Al = 540 kg.

11.8 The Equation of Continuity

Consider a fluid flowing through a tapered pipe:

11.9 and 11.10 Bernoulli’s Equation and Applications of Bernoulli’s

If a fluid moves through a horizontal pipe (y 1 = y 2 ), the equation becomes

CHAPTER 11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

2. The pressure at the surface of the

8. Which of the following statements is

9. The magnitude of the difference in

Free Response Question

Note: Figure not drawn to scale.

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS TO CHAPTER 11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

Free Response Question Solution

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

The content contained in sections 1, 2, 4, 6 – 8, and 11 (not including volume expansion)

Equations and Symbols

Ten Homework Problems

DISCUSSION OF SELECTED SECTIONS

12.1 and 12.2 Common Temperature Scales and The Kelvin

12.4 Linear Thermal Expansion

When a solid is heated, it typically expands. Different substances expand at different

where α is the coefficient of linear expansion.

Figure not drawn to scale

12.6 Heat and Internal Energy

CHAPTER 12 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The average kinetic energy of the

4. In general, when a solid is heated, it

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS TO CHAPTER 12 REVIEW QUESTIONS

THE TRANSFER OF HEAT

Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection, or radiation. Conduction is the

Equations and Symbols

Ten Homework Questions

DISCUSSION OF SELECTED SECTIONS

CHAPTER 13 REVIEW QUESTIONS

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS TO CHAPTER 12 REVIEW QUESTIONS

The content contained in sections 1 – 5, 7 – 13 of chapter 15 of the textbook is included

pressure-volume (PV) diagram

Equations and Symbols

Ten Homework Problems

DISCUSSION OF SELECTED SECTIONS

15.1 – 15.2 Thermodynamics

The third law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to reach a temperature of

15.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Change in internal energy ΔU = Heat Q added + work W done ON the system

Q lost by the metal = Q gained by the water

15.4 - 15.5 Thermal Processes, and Thermal Processes That Utilize an

The processes discussed above are summarized in the table below: