MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

NONG LAM UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING AND FOOD TECHNOLOGY

Course: Physics 2

Module 2:
Fluid Mechanics

Instructor: Dr. Nguyen Thanh Son

Academic year: 2023-2024

 Contents

Module 2: Fluid mechanics

2.1. Motion of ideal fluid
2.1.1 The concept of fluid
2.1.2 Mass density and pressure
2.1.3 Fluids in motion
2.2. Bernoulli’s equation and applications
2.2.1 Equation of continuity of fluid flow
2.2.2 Bernoulli’s equation
2.3. Newton’s law of viscosity – Viscosity of fluid
2.3.1 Newton's law of viscosity
2.3.2 Viscosity of fluid

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2.1. Motion of ideal fluid
2.1.1 The concept of fluid
• There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.

• A fluid is a substance in which the constituent molecules are free to move relative to each other. The
fluids sub-divide further into liquids and gases.

• Fluid can be either liquid or gas and is a substance that can flow, cannot withstand shearing stress, and
conforms to container. The molecules of a fluid are not arranged in particular manner but are free to
move.

• We describe a fluid by using quantities, such as mass density, pressure, temperature and fluid velocity
that can depend on location and time.

• Field of fluid mechanics can be divided into 3 branches:

♣ Fluid statics: mechanics of fluids at rest.
♣ Fluid kinematics: deals with velocities and streamlines without considering forces or energy.
♣ Fluid dynamics: deals with the relations between velocities and accelerations and forces
exerted by or upon fluids in motion.

• Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas of engineering and science. Examples are:
♣ Biomechanics
Blood flow through arteries,
Flow of cerebral fluid.
♣ Meteorology and ocean engineering
Movements of air currents and water currents.
♣ Chemical engineering
Design of chemical processing equipment.

2.1.2 Mass density and pressure

• We can characterize a fluid at rest by specifying its mass density ρ and describe the forces on the fluid
in terms of the scalar pressure P (force per unit area; its SI unit is the pascal, with 1 Pa = 1 N/m2).

a) Mass density

• The mass density ρ of a substance of uniform composition is its mass per unit volume:

ρ = m/V (69)

where m is the mass of the fluid of interest and V is its volume.

• ρ is constant for an incompressible fluid.

• In the SI unit system, mass density is measured in units of kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m 3).

• Since the volume of a fluid expands and contracts, the mass density of a fluid varies with temperature.
The most common fluid, water, has a mass density of 1000 kg/m3 at 4ºC. Air, a mixture composed

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principally of the gases, nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), has a mass density of 1.29 kg/m3 at 0ºC and
1.20 kg/m3 at 20ºC.

• Mass density of a particular fluid is often stated relative to water (at 4ºC), and when so stated, it is
called specific gravity. For instance, the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6. This means that the mass
density of mercury is 13.6 times that of water (at 4ºC), or 13.6 g/cm3 or 13600 kg/m3. If a liquid has a
specific gravity of 0.9, then its mass density is 0.9 times that of water, or 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m3.

b) Pressure

• Pressure P is defined as the magnitude of (perpendicular) force per unit area:

P = F/A (70)

where the force is perpendicular to the area of interest, as shown in the

figure on the left.

• Pressure is a scalar quantity measured in pascals, Pa, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.

• Note that 1 atmosphere (atm) = 1.01 x 105 Pa = 760 torr = 14.7 lb/in2. Also
note that 1 atm is the value of the pressure that is equal to a 0.76 m column of mercury at to = 0°C and
g = 9.80665 ms-2.

• The force exerted by a fluid at rest acting on any rigid surface is always perpendicular to the surface.
For if there were specific gravity, then the fluid would no longer be at rest, but would respond to the
reaction force supplied by the surface and motion would result.

• For an incompressible fluid at rest, the pressure within the fluid can be analyzed by applying the
basic force-pressure-area relation,

F = PA (71)

Variation of pressure with depth

In equilibrium, all points at the same depth

must be at the same pressure. Otherwise, a
net force would be applied and the fluid
would accelerate (see the figure on the
right).

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 Consider a volume of fluid at a distance h
below the horizontal surface (see the figure
on the left):

(72)

where w = Mg is the gravitational force and P0 = 1.013x10 5 Pa at sea level.

• (72) is the equation for pressure of fluid as a function of depth.

• The pressure at a given depth does not depend upon the shape of the vessel containing the liquid or
the amount of liquid in the vessel.

• As a result, in each of the three containers, as shown in the below figure, the pressure at depth h
would be the same - it is independent of the shape of the container, volume of water below the surface,
or the exposed surface area.

• From Equation (72) we see that comparing with the atmospheric pressure (P0), P increases with depth
by an amount ρgh.

• Note that in Equation (72) P is the absolute (true) pressure inside the container, and P-P0 = ρgh

is the gauge pressure, the pressure that is added to the atmospheric pressure to equal P. The gauge
pressure is due to the liquid alone and at a given depth depends only upon the mass density ρ of the
liquid and the distance h below the surface of the liquid.

Example Calculate the pressure at 1000 m of ocean depth. Normal atmospheric pressure is P0
= 1.013 x 10 5 Pa = 101,300 N/m2. Given g = 9.8 m/s2 and ρ = 1000 kg/m3.

Solution P = 1.013 x 105 Pa + (1.0 x 103 kg/m3)(9.80 m/s2)(1000 m) = 9.9 x 106 Pa.

• In general, we have

P2 = P1 + ρgh12 (72’)

where P1 is the pressure at higher level, P2 is the pressure at lower (deeper) level and h12 is the height
difference between two levels.

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♦ Pascal's principle (Pascal's law)

• When a confined fluid is completely enclosed, a change in pressure in one location is transmitted
through the fluid. Consider a water balloon with negligible air. Squeezing one side of the balloon
transmits the change in pressure to all other regions, usually resulting in the opposite of the balloon
being pushed outward, stretching the balloon.

• Pascal's principle may be stated that a change in the pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid
that is at rest is transmitted undiminished to all points in the fluid and in all directions.

• Pascal's principle is utilized in hydraulic systems. In Figure 13, a push on a cylindrical piston at point
a lifts an object at point b.

Figure 13. Pascal's principle is used to lift a car easily.

• Let subscripts a and b denote the quantities at each piston. According to Pascal's principle, the
changes in pressure at a and b are equal, or ∆Pa = ∆Pb . Substitute the expression for pressure in
terms of force and area (Equation 71) to obtain Fa /Aa = Fb /Ab. Substitute πr2 for the area of a
circle, simplify, and solve for Fb : Fb = (Fa )(rb 2 /ra 2). Because the force exerted at point a is
multiplied by the square of the ratio of the radii and rb > ra , a modest force on the small piston a
can lift a relatively larger weight on piston b.

Example From Michael Browne (1998), Physics for Engineering and Science, Schaum’s
Outlines, McGraw – Hill.

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2.1.3 Fluids in motion

• Fluids considered in this course move under the action of a shear stress, no matter how small that
shear stress may be (unlike solids).

• It is convenient to assume that fluids are continuously distributed throughout the region of interest.
That is, the fluid is treated as a continuum. This continuum model allows us not to have to deal with
molecular interactions directly. We will account for such interactions indirectly via viscosity (see
Section 2.3.2).

Ideal fluid

• Motion of real fluids can be very complex. It is necessary for us to be quite restrictive and look only
at ideal fluids in motion.

• By ideal we mean that the fluid is (1) non-viscous and (2) incompressible; (3) the fluid motion is
steady or laminar, and (4) the fluid flow is irrotational or without turbulence.

• In other words, there are four simplifying assumptions made to the complex flow of fluids to make the
analysis easier:
(1) The fluid is non-viscous – internal friction is neglected. All real fluids (with exception of
superfluids at low temperatures) have viscosity. Viscosity is a fluid’s internal friction or resistance to
flow, e.g. compare tar, olive oil and water. We assume ideal fluids with zero viscosity.

(2) The flow is steady (or laminar): the fluid’s velocity, mass density and pressure do not change
with time. At any point in the moving fluid we can define a velocity of flow. Steady or laminar flow
maintains when the velocity at any point in the flow remains constant. For example, observe water
flowing from a tap. When the tap is just open we see a smooth, steady flow of water – this is laminar
flow. If the tap is opened wide, then water gushes from the tap; the flow is irregular and the pattern of
flow changes with time – this is turbulent or non-laminar flow.

(3) The fluid is incompressible: the mass density has a constant value.
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 (4) The flow is irrotational – the fluid has no angular momentum about any point or the object
of interest does not spin.

• Such a fluid moves without turbulence, and no eddy currents are present.

Streamlines and streamtubes

• A streamline is a line that is tangential to the instantaneous velocity direction, as shown in Figure 14
(velocity is a vector that has a direction and a magnitude).

• Each streamline traces out the trajectory of

some selected small portion or element of the
fluid. To investigate flow, we might put markers
in the fluid, e.g. a dye in a liquid or smoke
particles in a gas. These markers will follow the
pattern of streamlines.

Figure 14. Illustration of streamlines of fluid flow.

• A streamline is actually the path which the particle takes in steady flow. The velocity of the particle is
tangential to the streamline, as shown in Figure 14.

• We see that streamlines help us to visualize flows of

fluid in the same ways of electric or magnetic field
lines help us to visualize these fields.

• Streamlines of flowing fluid have the following

properties:

• A tangent to a streamline at a point of interest

is in the direction of the fluid velocity at that
point;
Figure 15. A streamtube in a flowing fluid.
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 • The density of streamlines in the vicinity of a point is proportional to the magnitude of the
velocity at that point;
• The streamlines cannot intersect except at a point of zero velocity, otherwise the velocity would
not be uniquely determined at that point.

• A set of adjacent streamlines is called a tube of flow or a streamtube. A streamtube is actually a

tubular region of fluid surrounded by streamlines, as shown in Figure 15. Since streamlines do not
intersect, the same streamlines pass through a streamtube at all points along its length. Let us take two
cross-sections of a streamtube, with cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 (see Fig. 15). The number of
streamlines passing through A1 is equal to that through A2.

• If these cross - sectional areas are made small enough then the fluid velocities across the cross-
sections will be constant.

2.2. Bernoulli’s equation and applications

2.2.1 Equation of continuity of fluid flow

• For an ideal fluid and in absence of sources or

sinks, in a definite time interval the mass flowing
into a region must be equal to the mass flowing
out of the region. A good analogy to such fluid
flow is the flow of the traffic of automobiles driven
by perfectly behaved drivers.

• Consider a fluid moving through a pipe of

nonuniform size (diameter), as shown in Figure 16.
The particles move along streamlines in steady
flow and assume that there are no ‘sources’ or
‘sinks’.

• Because mass is conserved and the flow is
steady, the mass that crosses A1 (lower portion of
Fig. 16) in some time interval ∆t is equal to the
mass that crosses A2 (upper portion of Fig. 16) in
that time interval.
Figure 16. The mass that crosses A1 in some
time interval ∆t is equal to the mass that
crosses A2 in that time interval.

∆m1 = ∆m2 or ρ1A1∆x1 = ρ2A2∆x2

or ρ1A1v1∆t = ρ2A2v2∆t

or ρ 1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 (73)

or
ρAv = constant (74)

where v denotes fluid’s speed.

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• The quantity ρAv is often called the mass flow rate (mass per unit time) or mass flux (the SI unit of
the mass flow rate is kg/s). Equation (73) ensures that the
mass flow rate into a region equals that out of the region.

• Since the fluid of interest is incompressible, ρ is a

constant; thus ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ. As a result,

A1v1 = A2v2 (75)

or Av = constant (76)

• (76) is called the equation of continuity for fluids which

Figure 17. The streamlines are
forced closer together whenever the
pipe narrows.
Figure 17.
states that the cross-sectional area of the pipe and the
speed of the fluid are inversely proportional - that is,
fluids flow faster through narrower pipes and vice versa.
We can see this by the fact that the streamlines are forced
closer together whenever the pipe narrows, as illustrated by

• From Equation (76) we see that the product of the cross-sectional area and the fluid speed at all points
along a pipe is constant for an incompressible fluid. The product Q = R = Av is called the volume flow
rate or the volume flux and has dimensions of volume per unit time (Remember that flux is flow per
unit area.). The dimension of R is the volume per unit of time. The SI unit of R or Q is m3/s.

• The condition R = Av = constant is equivalent to the fact that the amount of fluid (the fluid volume)
enters one end of a tube in a given time interval equals the amount of fluid (the volume) leaving
the tube in the same time interval, assuming that the fluid is incompressible and that there are no
sources or sinks.

• From (76) we see that the fluid speed is high where the tube is constricted (small A) and the speed is
low where the tube is wide (large A). As the stream of fluid flows continuously, if the width of the
stream narrows the fluid speeds up and vice versa. This equation shows that where a pipe narrows the
fluid speed increases, e.g. a jet formed when you squeeze the end of a garden hose; rivers flow faster
when narrower near their source and slower as they broaden out on the plain.

• The equation of continuity expresses the conservation of matter. It is one of the equations used for
analyzing fluid motions.

Example Water flows through a

garden hose of inside diameter 2 cm at a speed
of 1.2 m/s. At what speed will it emerge from
a nozzle of diameter 1 cm? Ans. 4.8 m/s

2.2.2 Bernoulli’s equation

• As a fluid moves through a region where its

speed and/or elevation above the Earth’s
surface change, the pressure in the fluid varies
with these changes.
Figure 18. A fluid moving with streamline
flows through a pipe of varying cross-sectional
10 The volume of fluid flowing through A1 in
area.
a time interval ∆t must be equal to that through
A2 in the same time interval.
• The relationship between fluid speed, pressure and elevation was first derived by Daniel Bernoulli.
Consider the two shaded segments of a flowing fluid, as shown in Figure 18. The volumes of both
segments are equal, meaning that V1 = V2 = V.

• We can see from Figure 18 that the pipe carrying fluid ‘up hill’ and the cross-section of the pipe
changes from A1 (at the portion end) to A2 (at the upper portion).

• The work done on the lower end of the fluid by the fluid behind it is

W1 = F1∆x1 = P1A1∆x1 = P1V1 = P1V,

and similarly the work done on the fluid on the upper portion is W2 = –P2V2 = –P2V.

W2 is negative because the force on the fluid on the upper portion is opposite its displacement.
• The net work done by these forces is the equal to the net work done by the fluid on the fluid segment
of interest

Wfluid = W1 + W2 = (P1 – P2)V (77)

• Part of this work goes into changing the kinetic energy and some to changing the gravitational
potential energy of the earth-fluid system.

• The change in kinetic energy is

1 1
∆K = mv 22 − mv12 (78)
2 2

where m = m1 = m2 due to V1 = V2 = V and ρ is constant for an ideal fluid. In other words, the masses
are the same since the volumes are the same and the mass densities are also the same.

• The change in gravitational potential energy is

∆U = mgy2 – mgy1 (79)

where y1 and y2 are the heights (elevations) at point 1 and point 2, respectively.

• According to the law of energy conservation, the work done on the fluid segment of interest equals
the change in its mechanical energy or

Wfluid = ∆K + ∆U (80)

• Combining equations (77), (78), (79), and (80) leads to

1 2 1 2
(P1 – P2)V = mv − mv + (mgy2 – mgy1)
2 2 2 1

• By rearranging and expressing in terms of mass density, we have

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 1 2 1
P1 + ρv1 + ρ gy1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgy2 (81)
2 2

• This is Bernoulli’s equation and is often expressed as

1 2
P+ ρv + ρ gy = constant (82)
2

• Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume
1
( ρv2 ), and the potential energy per unit volume (ρgy) has the same value at all points along a
2
fluid streamline.

• We can see that Bernoulli’s equation comes essentially from the conservation of energy.

• Note that each term in Equation (82) is actually an expression of energy/volume and has SI units of
J/m3.

P has SI units of N/m2 which can be also expressed as work per unit volume, N.m/m3 = J/m3.

ρgy is just potential energy per unit volume, mgy/V, which is measured in J/m3.

1 2 1
ρv is just kinetic energy per unit volume, mv2/V, which is also measured in J/m3.
2 2

Fluid pressure and speed

• If we examine Bernoulli’s equation for the case y = constant, i.e. no change in height, (horizontal
motion) we have from Equation (82)
1
P + ρv2 = constant (83)
2
or
1 1
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv 22 (83’)
2 2

Equation (83) or (83’) shows that for horizontal motion of a fluid element, where the speed of
the fluid increases the pressure will decrease, and vice versa.

• When the fluid is at rest (v1 = v2 = 0), Equation (81) becomes P1 – P2 = ρg(y2 – y1) = ρgh12, where
h12 = y2 – y1 is the difference in height, or P1 = P2 + ρ gh12 which is consistent with the pressure
variation with depth we found earlier for a fluid at rest (see Equation 72’).

Example From Beiser, Arthur (1992), Physics 5th ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

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♦ Applications

• Venturi tube

Proportions of a Herschel-type venturi tube for standard

fluid-flow measurement.

Venturi tube is a device that consists of a gradually decreasing nozzle through which the fluid in
a pipe is accelerated, followed by a gradually increasing diffuser section that allows the fluid to nearly

13
regain its original pressure, as shown in the above figure. This device can be used to measure fluid flow
rate (a venturi meter), or to draw fuel into the main flow stream, as in a carburetor.

As shown in the above figure, a constriction (a short straight pipe section or throat between two
tapered sections) that is placed in a pipe and causes a drop in pressure as fluid flows through it.

The increase in speed of the fluid

is accompanied by a drop in its
pressure and vice versa.

An understanding of Venturi tube requires both the continuity equation and Bernoulli's equation.
The velocity of the air flowing through the tube depends on the cross - sectional area. For a smaller area
(A2 < A1), the fluid (air) velocity is greater, and from the continuity equation, we have

A1
v 2 = v1
A2

Applying this to Bernoulli's equation for constant y, we have

or

Because A2 < A1, the first term on the right - hand side of the above equation is negative; thus
P2 < P1 or there is a drop in pressure.

• Other applications

Atomizer:

A stream of air passing over a tube dipped

in a liquid causes the liquid to rise in the
tube. This effect can be found in perfume
atomizer bottles and paint sprayers.

14
Vascular flutter:

The constriction in the blood vessel (due to

a plaque) speeds up the blood flow through
the constriction. The lower pressure causes
the vessel to close, stopping the flow.
Without flow, there is no Bernoulli effect,
and blood pressure causes it to re-open.
The process repeats.

2.3. Newton’s law of viscosity – Viscosity of fluid

2.3.1 Newton's law of viscosity

• Consider a fluid (either a gas or a liquid) contained between two large parallel plates of area A which
are everywhere separated by a very small distance Y (the top panel of Figure 19).
The upper plate remains motionless, and a shear (parallel) force F (from left to right) is applied to
the bottom plane to maintain it at a velocity V (the first middle panel of Figure 19).
Because of the friction within the fluid and the friction between the fluid and the plate, the fluid
begins to move with the bottom plate. The upper plate remains stationary.

• This figure also shows the coordinate system that is usually used for momentum transfer; x
coordinate: the direction of the velocity vx and y coordinate: the direction of change of vx and the
direction for momentum transfer.

• We see that
At t < 0, the fluid motion has not started yet. So the whole fluid is at rest (the top panel of Figure
19).
At t = 0, the part of fluid right close to the lower plate starts to move o the right (the first middle
panel of Figure 19) under the action of the shear stress τ. But there is still no enough time allowed to
produce the velocity profile.
At small t values, some of the fluid is pulled along with the plate (the second middle panel of
Figure 19).
At long time (t ∞), a linear velocity gradient develops, and the flow velocity profile reaches a
steady state (the bottom panel of Figure 19).

15
 Figure 19. Using a shear stress to create a steady laminar velocity
profile for a fluid contained between two parallel plates.

• The magnitude of this velocity gradient (how fast the fluid speed changes with distance) is
characteristic of the fluid.

• Because of viscosity, at boundaries (walls) particles of the fluid adhere to the walls, and so the fluid
velocity is zero relative to the walls.

• Obviously, the force’s magnitude F (as shown in the first middle panel of Figure 19) is proportional to
the total amount of fluid being kept in motion, that is, to the total area A of the bottom plate in contact
with the fluid. The significant parameter is the horizontal force per unit area of plate, F/A, or the shear
stress τ. It clearly has the same dimensions as pressure (and so can be measured in pascals) although it
is physically completely different, since in the present case the force is parallel to the area, not
perpendicular to the area as pressure is.

• Newton's law of viscosity is an empirical law that describes the behavior of some fluids under a
limited range of conditions.

• It states that when a shear stress (τ = F/A) acts within a fluid moving in a streamline motion, it
sets up in the liquid a velocity gradient which is proportional to the stress.

velocity gradient = (constant) x (stress)

or (stress) = (constant) x (velocity gradient)

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• Mathematically,
F dv dv
τ= = −µ x =−µ (84)
A dy dy

Since the velocity profile gives negative gradient, negative sign is used in this equation.

• The proportional constant µ is known as the coefficient of viscosity, that is characteristic of the fluid
of interest; and τ = F/A is the shear stress (parallel force per unit area) acting within the fluid. The SI
unit of coefficient of viscosity is kg/m/s or Pa.s and that of τ is Pa (the same as that of pressure).

• Application When a fluid (e.g. air) flows past a stationary wall (e.g. a table top), the fluid right close
to the wall does not move. However, away from the wall the flow speed is not zero. So a velocity
gradient exists, as shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20. Velocity gradient in a stream of fluid moving past a stationary wall.

2.3.2 Viscosity of fluid

• Viscosity can be thought as the internal stickiness of a fluid. It is a representative of internal friction
in fluids.

• Internal friction forces in flowing fluids result from cohesion and momentum interchange (transfer)
between molecules.

• Viscosity of a fluid depends on temperature:

In liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing temperature (i.e. cohesion decreases with
increasing temperature).
In gases, viscosity increases with increasing temperature (i.e. molecular interchange between
layers increases with temperature, setting up strong internal shear).

• Viscosity is important, for example,

♣ in determining amount of fluids that can be transported in a pipeline during a specific
period of time.
♣ determining energy losses associated with transport of fluids in ducts, channels and pipes.

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 Example Compute the shear stress τ in Pa when the lower plate velocity V in the lower panel
of Figure 19 is 0.3 m/s in the positive x direction. The plate separation is Y = 0.03 cm and the fluid’s
coefficient of viscosity is 0.01813 mPa.s. Assume that the velocity profile is linear.

Solution Because the velocity profile is linear, we have

dv/dy = ∆v/∆y = (0 – 0.3)/(0.03 x 0.01 – 0) = –1000 s-1.
Using Equation (84), we obtain = – (0.01813 x 0.001) (–1000) = 1.813 x 10-2 Pa.

References

1) Hallidays, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. (1999), Fundamentals of Physics 7th ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2) Feynman, Richard; Leighton, Robert; Sands, Matthew (1989), Feynman Lectures on Physics,
Addison-Wesley.
3) Serway, Raymond; Faughn, Jerry. (2003), College Physics 7th ed., Thompson, Brooks/Cole.
4) Sears, Francis; Zemansky Mark; Young, Hugh. (1991), College Physics 7th ed., Addison-Wesley.
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http://www.umich.edu/~amophys/125/ttwo/ttwo.html
http://www.physics.uc.edu/~sitko/CollegePhysicsIII/9-Solids&Fluids/Solids&Fluids.htm
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/311/notes/fluids1/node1.html
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/Fluids.topicArticleId-10453,articleId-
10421.html
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http://home.anadolu.edu.tr/~bbozan/Ch_1_visvosity.doc
http://www.answers.com/topic/venturi-tube-2#

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