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MECHANICS OF FLUID

SHIJU R S
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE BARTONHILL
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM
 INTRODUCTION
• Fluid mechanics is the science that deals with the action of forces on fluids at rest
as well as in motion.
• If the fluids are at rest, the study of them is called fluid statics.
• If the fluids are in motion, where pressure forces are not considered,the study of
them is called fluid Kinematics.
• If the fluids are in motion and the pressure forces are considered, the study of them
is called fluid dynamics.
WHAT IS FLUID?
 Fluid is a substance that is capable of flowing.
 It has no definite shape of its own. It assumes the shape of its container.
 Both liquids and gases are fluids.
Continuum
 A continuous and homogeneous medium is called continuum.
 A fluid is composed of molecules which may be widely spaced apart, especially
in the gas phase. Yet it is convenient to neglect the atomic nature of the fluid
and view it as continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a
continuum.
 From the continuum view point, the overall properties and behaviour of fluids
can be studied without regard for its atomic and molecular structure.
Properties of fluids
Properties of fluids determine how fluids can be used in engineering and
technology. They also determine the behaviour of fluids in fluid mechanics.
 Density
 Specific Weight
 Vapour Pressure
 Viscosity
Properties of fluids
Density(𝜌)
Density is the mass per unit volume of a fluid.
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
𝜌 = Density of fluid, kg/m3
m = Mass of fluid, kg
V = Unit volume, m3
Specific Weight or Weight density (𝛾)
It is the weight per unit volume of a fluid.
𝛾 = 𝜌g (N/m2)
Where g is the gravitational acceleration
Properties of fluids
Vapour Pressure
The vapor pressure, Pv of a pure substance is defined as the pressure exerted by
its vapor in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature. For pure
substance it is identical to the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv = Psat).
 Vapor pressure increases with temperature. Thus, a substance at higher
temperatures boils at higher pressures.
 Water boils at 134°C in a pressure cooker operating at 3 atm absolute pressure,
but it boils at 93°C in an ordinary pan at a 2000-m elevation, where the
atmospheric pressure is 0.8 atm.
Properties of fluids
Vapour Pressure
Properties of fluids
Viscocity
It is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of
one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.
 The Dynamic (shear) viscosity(μ) of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing
flows, where adjacent layers move parallel to each other with different speeds.
Its unit is Ns/m2 or Pa.s .
 The kinematic viscosity(𝜐) (also called "momentum diffusivity") is the ratio of
the dynamic viscosity (μ) to the density(ρ) of the fluid. Its unit is m2/s.
Properties of fluids
Newton’s law of viscosity
It states that the shear stress on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to
the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient
of viscosity(μ).
τ = μ du/dy
•Where τ = shear stress
du/dy = Velocity Gradient

Velocity variation near a solid boundary

Properties of fluids
Variation of viscosity withtemperature
• Liquids - cohesion and momentum transfer
• Viscosity decreases as temperature increases.
• Relatively independent of pressure
(incompressible)
• Gases - transfer of molecular momentum
• Viscosity increases as temperature increases.
• Viscosity increases as pressure increases
Types of Fluids
• Ideal and Real fluids
• Newtonian and Non- Newtonian Fluids
• Plastic fluids
Ideal Fluid
An Ideal Fluid is a fluid that has no viscosity and surface tension and is
incompressible. (ie τ = 0)
Practically, no ideal fluid exists.
Real fluids
A real practical fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension and
compressibility in addition to the density. Real fluids implies friction effects. The
real fluids are actually available in nature.
Types of Fluids
Types of Fluids
Newtonian Fluid
Fluids that obey Newton’s law of viscosity are known as Newtonian Fluids. For a
Newtonian fluid, viscosity is entirely dependent upon the temperature and
pressure of the fluid. (τ = μ du/dy)
Examples: water, air, emulsions
Non- Newtonian Fluids
Fluids that do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity are non-Newtonian fluids.
(τ = μ (du/dy)n)
Examples: Oobleck (suspension of starch
in water), Pastes, Gels & Polymer solutions.
Types of Fluids

(a) Pseudoplastic (τ = μ (du/dy)n, n< 1)

(b) Dilatant (τ = μ (du/dy)n, n> 1)
(c) Ideal plastic (Bingham plastic) (τ = τ0+μ du/dy)
(d) Thixotropic(Hershel-Buckley)τ=τ0+μ(du/dy)n
(e) Newtonian (τ = μ du/dy)
τ = Shear stress (N/m2)
𝑑𝑢
𝛾 = = Velocity gradient (s-1)
𝑑𝑦

Flow curves for various

time dependent fluids
Fluid Statics
Pressure
The pressure is defined as the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. It is
denoted by P and is given by;
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
P= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
The SI unit of pressure is N/m2, which is called a pascal (Pa)
1 bar = 105 N/m2
Fluid Statics
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
Fluid Statics
• In the presence of a gravitational field, pressure increases
with depth because more fluid rests on deeper layers.
• To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with
depth, consider rectangular element

Force balance in z-direction gives

Where W =mg = ρgΔxΔz is the weight of the fluid element.

Dividing by Dx and rearranging gives

γs= ρg is the specific weight of the fluid.

Fluid Statics
• Thus, we conclude that the pressure difference between two points in a constant
density fluid is proportional to the vertical distance z between the points and
the density ρof the fluid.

If we take point 1 to be at the free surface of a liquid open to

the atmosphere, where the pressure is the atmospheric
pressure Patm then the pressure at a depth h from the free
surface becomes

Liquids are essentially incompressible substances, and thus

the variation of density with depth is negligible.
Fluid Statics
• Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape of the container.
• Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.
Measurement of Pressure
The following devices are used for pressure measurement
1. Manometer
2. Mechanical Pressure gauges
3. Electrical Pressure Transducer

Manometer
Manometer is a device used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by
balancing the column of fluid with the same column or another of the fluid.
Classification of Manometers
1. Simple manometer:
(1) Piezometer
(2) U-tube manometer
(3) Single column manometer
a) Vertical single column manometer
b) Inclined single column manometer
2. Differential manometer :
(1) U-tube differential manometer
(2) Inverted U-tube differential manometer
Simple manometer : It consist of a glass tube having one of its ends is connected
to a point where pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to
atmosphere

1. Piezometer
A piezometer is the simplest form of the
manometer. It measures gauge pressure only.
The pressure at any point in the liquid is
indicated by the height of the liquid in the tube
above that point, which can read on the
calibrated scale on glass tube.
The pressure at point A is given by;
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝛾ℎ
𝑝
∴ℎ= is 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝜌𝑔
2. U-Tube Manometer
It can be measure large pressure or vacuum
pressure and gas pressure.

Right side: p3 = γ2h2

Left side: p2 = pA + γ1h1
• p3 = p2 gives
γ2h2 = pA + γ1h1
The pressure at point A is given by;
pA = γ2h2 – γ1h1
2. Single column Manometer
(a) Vertical single column manometer
One of the limbs in manometer is converted into a reservoir having large cross
sectional area (about 100 times) with respect to the other limb

∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 =

Vol𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑎 × h2
∴ 𝐴 × Δℎ = 𝑎 × ℎ2 → Δℎ =
𝐴
Pressure in left col. = pressure in right col.
𝑎h2
∴𝑝= [𝜌2𝑔 − 𝜌1𝑔]+ 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1…………(i)
𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑎 ≪ 𝐴, 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚;
∴ 𝑝 = 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1
(b) Inclined single column manometer
It is modified of vertical column manometer. This manometer is useful for the
measurement of small pressure.
Here, ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ2 = 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞. 𝑖 ;
𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴𝑝= [𝜌2𝑔 − 𝜌1𝑔]+ 𝜌2𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1
𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑎 ≪ 𝐴, 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚;

∴ 𝑝 = 𝜌2𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1

∴ ℎ = 𝑠2𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠1ℎ1
3. Differential manometer
It is used to measure pressure difference at two points in a pipe or between two pipes
at different levels
(a) U-tube differential manometer
Case 1 – U-tube differential manometer connected at two points in a pipe at same
level
Left limb eq. ℎA+(h+x)S
Right limb eq. ℎB+hS1+xS
Equating
ℎA+(h+x)S = ℎB+hS1+xS
ℎA- ℎB = hS1+xS –hS-xS
ℎA- ℎB = h(S1-S)
(a) U-tube differential manometer
Case 2 - U-tube differential manometer connected between two pipes at different
levels and carrying different fluids

Left limb eq. ℎA+xS1

Right limb eq. ℎB+yS2+hS
Pressure is same at the datum
So equating
ℎA+xS1 = ℎB+yS2+hS
ℎA- ℎB = yS2+ hS – xS1
(b) Inverted U-tube differential manometer
It is used to measure difference of low pressure

Left limb eq. ℎA- h1S1

Right limb eq. ℎB - h2S2 - hS
Pressure is same at the datum
So equating
ℎA- h1S1 = ℎB - h2S2 - hS
ℎA- ℎB = h1S1 - h2S2 - hS
Pressure on Plane and Curved Surfaces
Centre of Pressure
The point of intersection of the line of action of the resultant force (total pressure
force) and the surface is the center of pressure.
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
When analyzing hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces, the atmospheric
pressure can be neglected for
simplicity when it acts on both
sides of the structure.
 Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface completely submerged in a liquid.

Consider the top surface of a flat plate of arbitrary shape completely submerged in a
liquid. The plane of this surface (normal to the page) intersects the horizontal free
surface at angle u, and we take the line of intersection to be the x-axis.
The pressure at any point on the plate is, p = ρgh = ρgy sin θ
 The resultant hydrostatic force FR acting on the surface is determined by
integrating the force P dA acting on a differential area dA over the entire
surface area,
FR = P dA = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌g sin θ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
But the first moment of area, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 = Ayc

∴ FR = 𝜌gAyC sin θ = 𝜌ghC A = PCA = PaveA

• The magnitude of FR acting on a plane
surface of a completely submerged plate in
a homogenous fluid is equal to the product
of the pressure PC at the centroid of the
surface and the area A of the surface
• Line of action of resultant force FR= PcA
does not pass through the centroid of the
surface. In general, it lies underneath where
the pressure is higher. That point is the
center of pressure.
Vertical location of Center of Pressure is determined by equation the moment of the
resultant force to the moment of the distributed pressure force about the x-axis
yPFR = 𝑦 P dA = 𝑦𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌g sin θ 𝑦2 𝑑𝐴
or, yPFR = 𝜌g sin θ Ixx,O
where yP is the distance of the center of pressure from the x-axis (point O in fig.)
and Ixx,o = 𝑦2 𝑑𝐴 is the second moment of
area (also called the area moment of
inertia) about the x-axis.
by the parallel axis theorem,
Ixx,O = Ixx,C + yC2A
∴ yP[𝜌gAyC sin θ ] = 𝜌g sin θ [Ixx,C + yC2A]
I
or yP = yC + xx,C
yC A
and hP = yP sin θ.
 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

• FR on a curved surface is more involved since it requires integration of the pressure

forces that change direction along the surface
• Easiest approach: determine horizontal and vertical components FH and FV
separately.
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
The fluid block is in static equilibrium, the force balances in the horizontal and vertical
directions give
Horizontal force component on curved surface: FH = Fx
Vertical force component on curved surface: FV = Fy ± W
where W = 𝜌gV, is the weight of the enclosed liquid block of volume V
• When a curved surface is above the liquid, the weight of the liquid and the vertical
component of the hydrostatic force act in the opposite directions.
• Add magnitudes if both act in the same direction and subtract if they act in opposite
directions.
• Magnitude of force FR= (FH2+FV2)
• Angle of force is θ = tan-1(FV/FH)
Thank You
MECHANICS OF FLUID

SHIJU R S
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE BARTONHILL
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability
Buoyancy
• If an object is immersed in or floated on the surface of fluid under static conditions
a force acts on it due to the fluid pressure. This force is called buoyant force or
buoyancy.
• The calculation of this force is based on Archimedes principle.
• It can be stated as “The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the
centroid of the displaced volume.” This poit is called the centre of buoyancy.
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability
Metacentre
It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted
by a small angle. In other words, the point at which the line of action of the force of
buoyancy will meet the normal axis of the body when the body is given a small
angular displacement.
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability
Metacentric Height
The distance (GM) between the metacentre of a floating body and the centre of
gravity of the body is called metacentric height.
Metacentric Height, GM = BM – BG
𝐼
& BM =
𝑉
𝐼
or GM = - BG
𝑉
Where, I = Second moment of area of the plane of the body at water surface about
y-y axis.
V = Volume of the body submerged in water.
= Volume of the fluid displaced by the body.
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability
Consider, for example, a flat plate of thickness h submerged in a liquid of density ρf
parallel to the free surface, as shown in the Fig.

The area of the top (and also bottom) surface

of the plate is A, and its distance to the free
surface is s.
Then the hydrostatic force Ftop = ρfgsA acts
downward on the top surface, and the larger
force Fbottom = ρfg(s + h)A acts upward on the
bottom surface of the plate.
The difference between these two forces is a
net upward force, which is the buoyant force,
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability
A solid body dropped into a fluid will,
1. Remains at rest at any point in the
fluid when its density is equal to
the density of the fluid,
2. Sinks to the bottom when its
density is greater than the density
of the fluid, and
3. Rises to the surface of the fluid
and floats when the density of the
body is less than the density of the
fluid
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability
Stability of Immersed Bodies
Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon relative location of center of
gravity G and center of buoyancy B.
a. G below B: stable.
b. G above B: unstable.
c. G coincides with B: neutrally stable.
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability
Stability of Immersed Bodies
• For example, if G is below B, a rotation from its equilibrium position will create a
restoring couple formed by the weight , and the buoyant force, which causes the
body to rotate back to its original position.
• If G is above B, the resulting couple formed by the weight and the buoyant force
will cause the body to overturn and move to a new equilibrium position.
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability
Stability of Floating Bodies
a. If body is bottom heavy and G lower than B, it is always stable.
b. When G is above B, floating bodies can also be stable, if the metacenter M is above
point G.
c. The body is (c) unstable if point M is below point G.
Fluid masses subjected to uniform accelerations
Case 1 : Liquid mass subjected to constant horizontal acceleration.
Consider a tank containing a liquid at a certain level.
Liquid mass subjected to constant horizontal acceleration.
Resolving the forces horizontally and vertically.
Fp sin θ + ma =0 or Fp sin θ = -ma
𝑎
Fp cos θ - mg =0 or Fp cos θ = mg ∴ tan θ = -
𝑔
Consider the equilibrium of an elementary prism DE in fig.
The net force acting vertically should be zero
pdA-p0dA-𝜌ghdA = 0
or p-p0 = 𝜌gh
Gauge pressure at D is
p = 𝜌gh
ie, the pressure head at any point
is equal to the height of the liquid
column at that point.
Liquid mass subjected to constant horizontal acceleration.
𝜌gA1h1
Total pressure force exerted by the liquid on the rear side of the tank, F1 =
2
𝜌gA2h2
Total pressure force exerted by the liquid on the front side of the tank, F2 =
2
If b is the width of the tank, then
𝜌gbh12 𝜌gbh22
F1 = & F2 =
2 2

The difference of two forces, is equal to the force

required to accelerate the mass of the liquid
contained in the tank
ie, F1 - F2 = M.a
Case 2 : Liquid mass subjected to constant verticalal acceleration.
Consider a tank containing a liquid and the tank is moving vertically upward.
Consider an elementary prism of liquid CDEF, shown in fig.
Net force in vertically upward direction = mass × acceleration
p.dA - p0dA - 𝜌g.dA.h= 𝜌.dA.h.a
p - p0 = 𝜌gh+ 𝜌ah = 𝜌gh(1+𝑔𝑎)
Gauge pressure,
P = = 𝜌gh+ 𝜌ah = 𝜌gh(1+𝑔𝑎)
When h=0, p=0
Hence free surface of liquid
subjected to constant vertical
acceleration will be horizontal.
Case 2 : Liquid mass subjected to constant verticalal acceleration.
If the tank containing liquid is moving vertically downward with a constant
accelaration,

p - p0 = 𝜌gh- 𝜌ah = 𝜌gh(1- 𝑔𝑎)

Gauge pressure,
P = 𝜌gh- 𝜌ah = 𝜌gh(1- 𝑔𝑎)
When a=g, then p=0
ie, there will be no force on the walls
or on the base of the tank.
Thank You