CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

FLUID STATIC

OBJECTIVES

General Objective : To know, understand and apply the concept of pressure and buoyancy,
piezometer, barometer, bourdon gauge and manometers

Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you should be able to :

⮚ explain the relationship between pressure and depth.

⮚ define Pascal Law and apply the concept into the Hydraulic Jack.

⮚ solve problems related to the Hydraulic Jack.

⮚ explain the concept of Buoyancy.

⮚ explain the concept of pressure measurement using piezometer.

⮚ solve problems related to piezometer.

⮚ explain the concept of pressure measurement using barometer.

⮚ solve problems related to barometer.

⮚ sketch, label and explain the working principle of bourdon gauge

⮚ explain the concept of pressure measurement using manometers.

⮚ solve problems related to the use of simple manometer.

⮚ solve problems related to the use of differential manometer.

⮚ solve problems related to the use of inverted differential

manometer.

1 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

INPUT

2.2 PASCAL LAW AND HYDRAULIC JACK

Pascal's Principle and Hydraulics

Hydraulic system uses an incompressible fluid, such as oil or water, to transmit forces
from one location to another within the fluid. Most aircraft use hydraulics in the braking
systems and landing gear. Pneumatic systems use compressible fluid, such as air, in their
operation. Some aircraft utilize pneumatic systems for their brakes, landing gear and
movement of flaps.

2 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

Pascal's law states that when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a
confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in the container.

A container, as shown below, contains a fluid. There is an increase in pressure as the

length of the column of liquid increases, due to the increased mass of the fluid above.

For example, in the Figure 2.3, P3 would be the highest value of the three pressure
readings, because it has the highest level of fluid above it.

Figure 2.3

If the container had an increase in overall pressure, that same added pressure would affect
each of the gauges (and the liquid throughout) in the same way. For example p1, p2, p3 were
originally 1, 3, 5 units of pressure, and if 5 units of pressure were added to the system, the
new readings would be 6, 8, and 10.

Applied to a more complex system below (Figure2.4), such as a hydraulic car lift, Pascal's
law allows forces to be multiplied. The cylinder on the left shows a cross-section area of 1
square meter, while the cylinder on the right shows a cross-section area of 10 square
metre. The cylinder on the left has a weight (force) of 1 kg acting downward on the piston,
which lowers the fluid 10 metres. As a result of this force, the piston on the right lifts a 10
kg weight a distance of 1 metre.

The 1 kg load on the 1 square metre area causes an increase in pressure on the fluid in the
system. This pressure is distributed equally throughout and acts on every square metre of
the 10 square metre area of the large piston. As a result, the larger piston lifts up a 10 kg
weight. The larger the cross-section area of the second piston, the larger the mechanical
advantage, and the more weight it lifts.

3 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

m2 = 10 kg
m1 = 1 kg

A1 = 1 m2
A2 = 10 m2
D1= 10 meter
D2 = 1 meter

Figure 2.4

The formulas that relate to this are shown below:

p1 =p 2 (since the pressures are equal throughout)

Since pressure equals force per unit area, then it follows that

F M
=
a A
It can be shown by substitution that the values shown above are correct,
1 kg 10 kg
=
1 square metre 10 square metre
Because the volume of fluid pushed down on the left side equals the volume of fluid that is
lifted up on the right side, the following formula is also true.

V 1 =V 2
by substitution,
A 1 ×D1 =A 2 ×D2

A = cross sectional area

D = the distance moved

Or
A1 D2
=
A2 D1
1.2.1 Pascal Law for Pressure At A Point

4 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

Pressure at any point is the same in all

directions.

This is known as Pascal Law and applies

to fluids at rest

By considering a small element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism

which contains a point p, we can establish a relationship between the three
pressures px in the x direction, py in the y direction and pz in the z direction normal
to the sloping face. (Figure 2.5)

px

Pz

P
y

Figure 2.5

The pressure p at a point in a fluid can be expressed in terms of the height

h of the column of the fluid which causes the pressure, or which would cause an
equal pressure if the actual pressure is applied by other means.
We know that p = h = ρg and the height, h is called the pressure head at
that point. It is measured as a length (e.g in meters) of fluid. The name of fluid
must be given because the mass density is different for each liquid.

Example 2.3

Find the head, h of water corresponding to an intensity of pressure, p of 340 k N/m2. Take
into consideration that the mass density, ρ of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Solution to Example 2.3
Since p = ρgh

5 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

p
h=
Head of water , ρg
340000
=
1000 x 9.81
= 34.7 m

2.2.2 Hydraulic Jack

A Hydraulic Jack is used to lift a heavy load with the help of a light force.

Below is a diagram of a hydraulic jack (Figure 2.6). A force, F is applied to

the piston of the small cylinder and forces oil or water out into the large cylinder
thus, raising the piston supporting the load, W.

The force, F acting on area, a produced a pressure p1 which is transmitted

equally in all direction through the liquid. If the two pistons are at the same level,
the pressure, p2 acting on the larger piston must equal p1.

p1 = p2
F
Area , a
W

p1 p2
Area, A

Figure 2.6
Example 2.4

A force, F of 800 N is applied to the smaller cylinder of a hydraulic jack. The area, A of a
small piston is 20 cm2 while the area, A of a larger piston is 200 cm2. What mass can be
lifted on the larger piston?

Solution to Example 2.4

6 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

F = 800 N

W
Area ,
a = 20 cm2 p1 p2

Area,
A = 200
cm2

Putting F = 800 N, a = 20/1000 m2 , A = 200 / 1000 m2

p 1 = p2
F W
a = A

A
W =F
So that a
2.0
×
= 800 0.2 = 8000 N
W
Mass lifted = g
8000
=
9.81

= 815.49 kg

7 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

ACTIVITY 2.2

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT INPUT…!

2.3 A force, F of 650 N is applied to the smaller cylinder of an hydraulic jack. The area, a of a
small piston is 15 cm2 and the area A of a larger piston is 150 cm2.

What load, W can be lifted on the larger piston if :

(a) the both pistons are at the same level ?
(b) the large piston is 0.65 m below the smaller piston ?
(c) the small piston is 0.40 m below the larger piston ?

Consider the mass density ρ of the liquid in the jack is 900 kg/m 3

8 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.2

2.3

(a) if the pistons are at the same level

F
Area , a
W

p1 p2
Area,
A

F W
Now p1 = a and p2 = A
p1 = p2 ,
F W
a = A
Or
a
W
F = A
Thus, the small force F can raise the larger load W because the jack has a
mechanical advantage of A/a.
Putting F = 650 N, a = 15/1000 m2 , A = 150 / 1000 m2

F W
a = A
A
W =F×
So that a
1. 5
×
= 650 0. 15

= 6500 N

9 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

(b) if the large piston is 0.65 m below the smaller piston ?

F
Area , a

p1
h W

p2 Area, A

If the larger piston is a distance h below the smaller piston, the pressure p2 will be greater
than p1, due to the head, h by an amount ρg, where ρ is the mass density of the liquid and g
is the gravity. Take into consideration g = 9.81 m/s2
p2 = p1 + ρ gh
F 650
p1 = = = 43. 3×104 N /m2
a 15×10− 4
3 3
Putting ρ = 10 kg /m , h = 0.65 m and g = 9.81 m/s2

p2 = p1 + ρ gh
p2 =43 . 3×10 4 + ( 103 ×9 . 81 )×0. 65
4
= 43.3 ¿ 10 + 6376.5
= 439.38 kN
and W
= p2 A
3 −4
= 439 .38×10 × 150 ×10
= 6.59 kN
(c) the small piston is 0.40 m below the larger piston ?

10 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

F
Area , a
W

p2
h

Area, A
p1

If the smaller piston is a distance h below the larger piston, the pressure p1 will be greater
than p2, due to the head, h by an amount ρg, where ρ is the mass density of the liquid and g
is the gravity. Take into consideration g = 9.81 m/s2

p1 = p2 + ρ gh
W
p2 =
A

3 3
Putting ρ = 10 kg/m , g = 9.81 m/s2 and h = 0.40 m
p1 = p2 + ρ gh
W
p1 = + ρ gh
so A
F
but p1 = a
F W
+ ρ gh
a = A

so
F
W= a
(
− ρ gh A )
W=
(6500.0015 − 1000×9. 81×0. 4 ) 0. 015
W = 6.44114 kN

11 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

INPUT

3.3 BUOYANCY

Principle of Archimedes
Upthrust on body = weight of fluid displaced by the body
Archimedes Principle
states that the buoyant
force on a submerged
object is equal to the
weight of the fluid that is
displaced by the object.

Figure 3.7 Buoyancy

If the body is immersed so that part of its volume, V1 is immersed in a fluid of

density,
ρ1 and the rest of its volume, V in another immiscible fluid of mass density ρ2 .
2

The upthrust will act through the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid, which is
called the centre of buoyancy.

Upthrust on upper part, F1 = ρ1 gv 1

acting through G1, the centroid of v1,

Upthrust on lower part, F2 = ρ2 gv 2

12 | Page
acting through G2, the centroid of v2,

Total upthrust = ρ1 gv 1 + ρ2 gv 2
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

The positions of G1 and G2 are not necessarily on the same vertical line, and the
centre of buoyancy of the whole body is, therefore, not bound to pass through the centroid
of the whole body.

Example 3.5

A rectangular pontoon has a width B of 6 m, a length l of 12 m, and a draught, h of 1.5 m in

fresh water (density 1000 kg/m3). Calculate :
a) the weight of the pontoon
b) its draught in sea water (density 1025 kg/m3)
c) the load (in kiloNewtons) that can be supported by the pontoon in fresh water if
the maximum draught permissible is 2 m.

Solution to Example 2.5

When the pontoon is floating in an unloaded condition,
Uptrust on immersed volume = weight of pontoon
Since the uptrust is equal to weight of the fluid displaced,
Weight of pontoon = weight of fluid displaced,

F = ρ ×g ×(⏟
B× l ) ×h
⏟
A

So, V
3
a) In fresh water, ρ = 1000 kg/m and h = 1.5 m ;

Therefore,

Weight of pontoon,
F= 1000 × 9.81 × 6 ×12× 1.5
F = 1059.5 kN
3
b) In the sea water, ρ = 1025 kg/m; therefore,
F=gv
=xgxBxlxh

F
h=
Draught in sea water, ρ×g×B×l

13 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

3
1059.5 × 10
= 1025 × 9.81 × 6 × 12
= 1.46 m
c) For maximum draught of 2 m in fresh water,

Total uptrust = weight of water displaced

= ρ×g×B×l×h
= 1000×9. 81×6×12×2

= 1412.6 kN
Load which can be supported = Upthrust – weight of pontoon
= 1412.6−1059.5
= 353.1 kN
ACTIVITY 2.3

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT INPUT…!

2.4 Define the Archimedes Principle.

2.5 Consider a barge filled with rock. The barge is 7 m wide, 17 m long, and 2.5 m
deep. If the barge and rock weigh 2.0 MN, determine the depth of submergence of
the barge in water as shown in the figure below.

14 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.3

2.4
Archimedes Principle states that the buoyant force on a submerged object is equal
to the weight of the fluid that is displaced by the object.

2.5

The specific weight of water is 9,800 N/m 3 (or 9.8 kN/m3). From the buoyancy
concept, the volume of displaced fluid (water) must balance the weight of the
barge. Thus,

Wbarge = FB = water Vbarge

Substituting volume Vbarge with 1 w d, we have:

Wbarge = water l w d = (9.8 kN/m3)(17 m)(7 m) d

Or

W b arg e
d=
( 9 . 8 kN /m3 ) (17 m )( 7 m )

Substituting the weight of the barge gives:

2. 0 MN
d=
( 9 . 8 kN /m3 ) (17 m )( 7 m )

15 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

=1.71 m

SELF-ASSESSMENT

You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment section and check
your answers with those given in the Feedback on Self-Assessment. If you face any problems,
discuss it with your lecturer. Good luck.

2.1 In a hydraulic jack a force F, is applied to a small piston that lifts the load on the
large piston. If the diameter of the small piston is 15 mm and that of the large
piston is 180 mm, calculate the value of F required to lift 1000 kg.

2.2 Two cylinders with pistons are connected by a pipe containing water. Their
diameters are 75 mm and 600 mm respectively and the face of the smaller piston is
6 m above the larger. What force on the smaller piston is required to maintain a
load of 3500 kg on the larger piston?

2.3 A rectangular pontoon 5.4 m wide by 12 m long, has a draught of 1.5 m in fresh
water (density 1000 kg/m3). Calculate:
(a) the mass of the pontoon,
(b) its draught in the sea water (density 1025 kg/m3).

2.4 A ship floating in sea water displaces 115 m3. Calculate:

(a) the weight of the ship if sea water has a density of 1025 kg/m3,
(b) the volume of fresh water (density 1000 kg/m3) which the ship would
displace.

16 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

FEEDBACK ON SELF-ASSESSMENT

Answers :

2.1 68.2 N

2.2 276 N

2.3 a) 97000 kg ,
b) 1.47 m

2.4 a) 118000 kg ,
b) 118 m3

17 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

INPUT

3.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

3.4.1 PIEZOMETER ( Pressure Tube )

Figure 3.8: Piezometer inside a pipe

A Piezometer is used for measuring pressure inside a vessel or pipe in which liquid
is there. A tube may be attached to the walls of the container (or pipe) in which the
liquid resides so that liquid can rise in the tube. By determining the height to which
liquid rises and using the relation p1 = ρgh, gauge pressure of the liquid can be
determined. It is important that the opening of the device is to be tangential to any
fluid motion, otherwise an erroneous reading will result.

Although the Piezometer tube is a very simple and accurate pressure measuring
device, it has several disadvantages. It is only suitable if the pressure in the
container (pipe or vessel) is greater than the atmospheric pressure (otherwise air
would be sucked into system), and the pressure to be measured must be relatively
small so that the required height of column is reasonable. Also, the fluid in the
container in which the pressure is to be measured must be a liquid rather than a
gas.

18 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

Example 2.6
3
A pressure tube is used to measure the pressure of oil ( mass density, 640 kg /m ) in a
pipeline. If the oil rises to a height of 1.2 above the centre of the pipe, what is the gauge
pressure in N / m at that point? (gravity = 9.81 m/s2)
2

Solution to Example 2.6

3
Putting ρ =640 kg/m
and h=1. 2m

We know that, p = ρ gh

So, p = 640×9.81×1.2
2
p = 7.55 kN /m
3.4.2 BAROMETERS

Figure 3.9: Mercury Barometer

A Barometer is a device used for measuring atmospheric pressure. A

simple Barometer consists of a tube of more than 30 inch (760 mm) long inserted
into an open container of mercury with a closed and evacuated end at the top and
open tube end at the bottom and with mercury extending from the container up
into the tube. Strictly, the space above the liquid cannot be a true vacuum. It
contains mercury vapour at its saturated vapour pressure, but this is extremely
small at room temperatures (e.g. 0.173 Pa at 20oC). The atmospheric pressure is
calculated from the relation patm = ρgh where ρ is the density of fluid in the
barometer. There are two types of Barometer; Mercury Barometer and Aneroid
Barometer.

Example 2.7

19 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

Describe with a sketch, one method of measuring atmospheric pressure.

Solution to Example 2.7

Vacuum (zero pressure)

Mercury sp.wg, ωm
h
P P

pA

Figure 2.10

A Mercury Barometer in its simplest form consists of a glass tube, about 1 m long
and closed at one end, which is completely filled with mercury and inverted in a bowl of
mercury (Figure 3.3). A vacuum forms at the top of the tube and the atmospheric pressure
acting on the surface of the mercury in the bowl supports a column of mercury in the tube
height, h.
Example 2.8
What is the atmospheric pressure in N/m2 if the level of mercury in a Barometer (Figure
3.3) tube is 760 mm above the level of the mercury in the bowl? Given the specific gravity
3 3
9 . 81×10 N /m
of mercury is 13.6 and specific weight of water is .

Solution to Example 2.8

If A is a point in the tube at the same level as the free surface outside, the pressure pA at A
is equal to the atmospheric pressure p at the surface because, if the fluid is at rest,
pressure is the same at all points at the same level.

The column of mercury in the tube is in equilibrium under the action of the force due to pA
acting upwards and its weight acting downwards; there is no pressure on the top of the
column as there is a vacuum at the top of the tube.

20 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

So,

p A × area of column A = specific weight of mercury × specific weight of water

p A× A= ω m×ah
or
p A= ωm ×h

Putting
h = 760 mm = 0.76 mm
While
ω m= specific gravity of mercury × specific weight of water
3 2
ω m= 13 .6×9 . 81×10 N /m

From
p A= ωm ×h
So
3 2
p A = 13. 6×9 . 81×10 ×0 . 76 N /m
2
=101.3 kN/m
3.4.3 BOURDON GAUGE

Figure 2.11

Bourdon Gauge is used to measure pressure differences that are more than 1.2 bar. The
pressure to be measured is applied to a curved tube, oval in cross section. Pressure
applied to the tube tends to cause the tube to straighten out, and the deflection of the end

21 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

of the tube is communicated through a system of levers to a recording needle. This gauge
is widely used for steam and compressed gases. The pressure indicated is the difference
between that communicated by the system to the external (ambient) pressure, and is
usually referred to as the gauge pressure.

Mechanism of a Bourdon
1. Gauge
The pressure sensing element is a tube of oval cross-section bent to a
circular shape.
2. One end of the tube is fixed to the gauge case and is connected to the
fluid whose pressure is to be measured.
3. The other end is closed and is free to move as it is connected via
mechanical linkage and gear sector to a pointer.
4. As measured fluid pressure increases above the surroundings, the tube
cross-section tends to become circular and causes the tube to deflect at
the second end.
5. This motion is transmitted via linkage to the pointer, which would
directly indicate on the calibrated scale or dial on the gauge pressure.

ACTIVITY 2.4

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT INPUT…!

1.4 What is the maximum gauge pressure of water of height 1.5 m that can be
measured by a Piezometer? If the liquid had a relative density of 0.85 what
would the maximum measurable gauge pressure?

p1 = ρgh
=

22 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.4

2.4

Gauge pressure, p = gh

For water,
p = watergh
p = 1000 x 9.81x 1.5
p = 14715 N/m2 (or Pa)
p = 14.715 kN/m2 (or kPa)

For Liquid,
p = liquidgh
liquid = water x relative density
p = 1000 x 0.85 x 9.81 x 1.5
p = 12507.75 N/m2 (or Pa)
p = 12.5 kN/m2 (or kPa)

23 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

INPUT

3.5 MANOMETERS
The relationship between pressure and head is utilized for pressure measurement in the
manometer or liquid gauge. We can measure comparatively high pressures and negative
pressures with the manometer. The following are a few types of manometers:
i. Simple manometer,
ii. Differential manometer and
iii. Inverted differential manometer.

3.5.3 SIMPLE MANOMETER

A simple manometer is a tube bent in U-shape. One end of which is attached to the
gauge point and the other is open to the atmosphere as shown in (Figure 3.5)
The liquid used in the bent tube or simple manometer is generally mercury which
is 13.6 times heavier than water. Hence, it is also suitable for measuring high
pressure.
Now consider a simple manometer connected to a pipe containing a light
liquid under high pressure. The high pressure in the pipe will force the heavy
liquid, in the left-hand limb of the U-tube, to move downward. This downward
movement of the heavy liquid in the left-hand limb will cause a corresponding rise
of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb. The horizontal surface, at which the
heavy and light liquid meet in the left-hand limb is known as a common surface or
datum line. Let B-C be the datum line, as shown in Figure 3.5.

P

24 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

sQ

Figure 2.12

Let h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb above the common surface
in cm.
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb above the common
surface in cm.
p A = Pressure in the pipe, expressed in terms of head of water in cm.
ω P = Specific weight of the light liquid
sQ = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.

The pressure in the left-hand limb and the right-hand limb above the datum line is
equal.

Pressure
pB at B = Pressure pC at C

Pressure in the left-hand limb above the datum line

P

Imagine that
the right limb
is hidden.

25 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

pB = Pressure, p A at A + Pressure due to depth, h1 of fluid P

=
p A + ω P h1

=
p A + ρP gh 1
Specific weight,
=g

Thus pressure in the right-hand limb above the datum line;

Imagine that
the left limb
is hidden.

sQ

pC = Pressure pD at D + Pressure due to depth h2 of liquid Q

But
pD = Atmospheric pressure = Zero gauge pressure

And so,
pC = 0 + ωQ h2

=
0 + ρQ gh 2

Since
pB = pC ,
p A +ρ P gh1 =ρQ gh2
so,

26 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

p A = ρQ gh 2 − ρP gh 1
Example 2.9
A U-tube manometer similar to that shown in Figure 2.13 is used to measure the gauge
pressure of water (mass density ρ = 1000 kg /m3). If the density of mercury is 13.6 × 10 3
kg /m3, what will be the gauge pressure at A if h1 = 0.45 m and h2 is 0.7 m above BC.

ωP(Water)

ΩQ(mercury)

Figure 2.13
Solution to Example 2.9
Considering
ρQ = 13 .6 × 10 3 kg /m3
3 3
ρ P = 1 .0 × 10 kg /m
h1 = 0 . 45 m
h2 = 0 . 7 m
the pressure at left-hand limb;
pB = Pressure, p A at A + Pressure due to depth, h1 of fluid P

=
p A + ω P h1

= A
p + ρ gh
P 1
the pressure at right-hand limb;
pC = Pressure pD at D + Pressure due to depth h2 of liquid Q
pC = 0 + ωQ h2

=
0 + ρQ gh 2

Since
pB = pC
p A +ρ P gh1 =ρQ gh2
p A= ρQ gh 2 −ρ P gh1
3 3
=13 . 6×10 ×9. 81×0 .7−1. 0×10 ×9 . 81×0 . 45
2
= 88976. 7 N /m

27 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

3 2
=88.97 × 10 N /m
If negative pressure is to be measured by a simple manometer, this
can be measured easily as discussed below:
In this case, the negative pressure in the pipe will suck the light liquid which will pull up
the heavy liquid in the left-hand limb of the U-tube. This upward movement of the heavy
liquid, in the left-hand limb will cause a corresponding fall of the liquid in the right-hand
limb as shown in Figure 2.14

In this case, the datum line 2.14

Figure B-C may be considered to correspond with the top level
of the heavy liquid in the right column as shown in the Figure 2.14

Now to calculate the pressure in the left- hand limb above the datum line.

Let h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb above the common
surface in cm.
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the left-hand limb above the common
surface in cm
pA = Pressure in the pipe, expressed in terms of head of water in cm.
sP = Specific gravity of the light liquid
sQ = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.

Pressure
pB at B = Pressure pC at C
Pressure in the left-hand limb above the datum line;

28 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

pB = Pressure p A at A + Pressure due to depth h1 of fluid P + Pressure due to

h
depth 2 of liquid Q

=
p A + ω P h1 + ωQ h 2

= A
p + ρ gh + ρ gh
P 1 Q 2
Pressure in the right-hand limb above the datum line;

pC = Pressure pC at C

But
pC = Atmospheric pressure

And so,
pC = patm=0P gauge

Since
pB = pC
p A + ρP gh 1 + ρQ gh2 = pC =0
p A = 0−( ρ P gh1 + ρQ gh 2 )
Example 3.10

A U-tube manometer similar to that shown in Figure 2.15 is used to measure the gauge
pressure of a fluid P of density ρ = 1000 kg/m3. If the density of the liquid Q is 13.6 × 10 3
kg/m3, what will be the gauge pressure at A if h1 = 0.15 m and h2 = 0.25 m above BC.
Take into consideration patm = 101.3 kN/m2.

29 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

Figure 2.15
Solution to Example 2.10

3
Putting , ρQ = 13.6 ¿ 10
ρP = 1000 kg/m3
h1 = 0.15 m
h2 = 0.25 m

pressure at left-hand limb;

pB = Pressure p A at A + Pressure due to depth h1 of fluid P + Pressure due to
h
depth 2 of liquid Q

=
p A + ω P h1 + ωQ h 2

= A
p + ρ gh + ρ gh
P 1 Q 2
pressure at right-hand limb;
pC = Pressure at C = Pressure atmospheric
pC = patm

Since
pB = pC ,
p A + ρP gh 1 + ρQ gh2 = p B =0

p A = p B −( ρP gh1 + ρQ gh 2 )
=0−( ( 1000× 9 . 81 × 0. 15 ) + ( 13. 6 × 103 × 9. 81 × 0 . 25 ) )
=−34825 .5 N /m2
2
=−34 .826 kN /m
ACTIVITY 2.5

30 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

3.5 A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure which is more than the
atmospheric pressure in a pipe, the water being in contact with the mercury in the
left-hand limb. The mercury is 20 cm below A in the left-hand limb and 25 cm
above A in the right-hand limb, sketch the manometer.

3.6 The U-tube manometer measures the pressure of water at A which is below the
atmospheric pressure. If the specific weight of mercury is 13.6 times that of water
and the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kN/m2, find what is the absolute pressure
at A when h1 = 10 cm, h2 = 25 cm and the specific weight of water is 9.81×10 3
N/m3.

31 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.5

3.5

32 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

3.6

pB = p A +ω air h 1 +ω mercury h2
2
pC = patm =101. 3 kN /m
pB = p C
p A +ω air h1 +ω mercury h 2= p atm
p A= p atm−ω air h1 −ω mercury h2
p A=101 . 3×103 −9810 ( 0 . 1 )−9810 ( 13 . 6 ) ( 0. 25 )
2
=66965 N /m
2
=66.965 kN /m

INPUT

2.5.3 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER

33 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

It is a device used for measuring the difference of pressures, between two points in
a pipe, or in two different pipes.
A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid with two
ends connected to two different points. We are required to find the difference of pressure
at these two points, as shown in Figure 3.9.
A differential manometer is connected to two different points A and B. A little
consideration will show that the greater pressure at A will force the heavy liquid in the U-
tube to move downwards. This downward movement of the heavy liquid, in the left-hand
limb, will cause a corresponding rise of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb as shown in
Figure 2.16

Figure 2.16

The horizontal surface C-D, at which the heavy liquid meet in the left-hand limb, is the
datum line.
Let h = Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb above the datum line.
h1 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb above the datum line
h2 = Height of the light liquid in the right-hand limb above the datum line
pA = Pressure in the pipe A, expressed in term of head of the liquid in cm
pB = Pressure in the pipe B, expressed in term of head of the liquid in cm
ωP = Specific weight of the light liquid
ωQ = Specific weight of the heavy liquid

We know that the pressures in the left-hand limb and right-hand limb , above the datum
line are equal.

Pressure pC at C = Pressure pD at D
Pressure in the left-hand limb above the datum line

34 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

pC = Pressure
p A at A + Pressure due to depth h of fluid P
pC = p A +ω P h
pC = p A +ρ P gh
Pressure in the right-hand limb above the datum line

pD = Pressure p A at A + Pressure due to depth h1 of fluid P + Pressure due to depth h2 of

liquid Q
pD = pB +ωQ h1 +ω P h2
= p B+ ρQ gh1 +ρ P gh2
Since,
pC = p D
p A +ρ P gh=p B +ρQ gh1 +ρ P gh 2

35 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

p A− p B=ρQ gh1 + ρP gh 2 −ρ P gh

Example 2.11
A U tube manometer measures the pressure difference between two points A and B in a
liquid. The U tube contains mercury. Calculate the difference in pressure if h =1.5 m, h2 =
0.75 m and h1 = 0.5 m. The liquid at A and B is water ( ω = 9.81 × 103 N/m2) and the specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6.

Figure 2.17

Solution to Example 2.11

Since C and D are at the same level in the same liquid at rest
p p
Pressure P at C = Pressure Q at D
For the left hand limb
pC = p A +ωh
For the right hand limb
pD = pB + ω ( h2 −h1 ) + sωh1
= p B + ωh2 −ωh 1 + sωh1

since
pC = p D
p A +ωh= p B + ωh2 −ωh 1 +sωh 1
Pressure difference
p A− p B
=ωh 2 −ωh1 + sωh 1 −ωh
=ωh 2 −ωh+ sωh 1−ωh1
=ω ( h2 −h ) + ωh1 ( s−1 )
3 3
=9.81×10 ( 0 .75−1.5 ) +9. 81×10 ( 0.5 ) ( 13.6−1 )
=54445.5 N /m
2
=54.44 kN /m2
36 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

ACTIVITY 2.6

2.6 A U tube manometer measures the pressure difference between two points A and
B in a liquid. The U tube contains mercury. Calculate the difference in pressure if h
= 2.0 m, h2 = 0.35 m and h1 = 0.5 m. The liquid at A and B is oil ( s = 0.85 ) and the
specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.

FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.6

3.4

37 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

oil

mercury

Since C and D are at the same level in the same liquid at rest

Pressure
pC at C = Pressure
pD at D

For the left hand limb

pC = p A +ωh
For the right hand limb
pD = pB + ωh2 + sωh 1

since
pP =p Q
p A +ωh= p B+ ωh2 + sωh 1
Pressure difference
p A− p B
=ω oil h 2 +sωh1 −ω oil h
= 0.85 ( 9810 ) ( 0.35 ) +13.6 ( 9810 ) ( 0.5 )−0.85 ( 9810 )( 2.0 )
2
¿ 52949.475 N /m
2
¿ 52.949475 kN /m

INPUT

38 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

2.5.3 INVERTED DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER

It is a particular type of differential manometer, in which an inverted U-tube is

used. An inverted differential manometer is used for measuring the difference of
low pressure, where accuracy is the prime consideration. It consists of an inverted
U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the U-tube are connected to the
points where the difference of pressure is to be found out as shown in Figure 3.10.

Now consider an inverted differential manometer whose two ends are connected
to two different points A and B. Let us assume that the pressure at point A is more
than that at point B, a greater pressure at A will force the light liquid in the
inverted U-tube to move upwards. This upward movement of liquid in the left limb
will cause a corresponding fall of the light liquid in the right limb as shown in
Figure 3.10. Let us take C-D as the datum line in this case.

ωQ

ωP
Figure 2.18

Let h = Height of the heavy liquid in the left-hand limb below the datum line,
h1= Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb below the datum line ,
h2= Height of the light liquid in the right-hand limb below the datum line,
ωP= Specific weight of the light liquid
ωQ= Specific weight of the heavy liquid

We know that pressures in the left limb and right limb below the datum line are
equal.

Pressure
pC at C = Pressure pD at D

Example 2.12

The top of an inverted U tube manometer is filled with oil of specific gravity, soil=0.98 and
the remainder of the tube with water whose specific weight of water, ω= 9.81×10 3
2 2
N/m . Find the pressure difference in N/m between two points A and B at the same level
at the base of the legs where the difference oil refer to water level h2 is 75 mm.

39 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

Figure 2.19

For the left hand limb

pD = p A −ωh1 −so ωh2
for the right hand limb
pC = pB −ω ( h 1 +h2 )
= p B−ωh 1−ωh2
since,
pC = p D
pB −ωh1 −ωh 2= p A −sωh2 −ωh 1

pB− p A=ωh 1 +ωh 2 −sωh 2 −ωh1

=ωh 2 −sωh 2
=ωh 2 ( 1−s )
3
=9.81×10 ( 0 .075 ) [ 1−0.98 ]
=14.715 N/m2

ACTIVITY 2.7

2.7 An inverted U tube as shown in the figure below is used to measure the pressure
difference between two points A and B which has water flowing. The difference in level h =
0.3 m, a = 0.25 m and b = 0.15 m. Calculate the pressure difference pB – pA if the top of the
manometer is filled with:

40 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

(a) air
(b) oil of relative density 0.8.

FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.7

2.7

41 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

In either case, the pressure at X-X will be the same in both limbs, so that

p XX = p A −ρ ga−ρmano gh= pB −ρg ( b+h )

pB − p A =ρg ( b−a ) + gh ( ρ−ρmano )

(a) if the top is filled with air ρmano is negligible compared with ρ. Therefore,

pB − p A =ρg ( b−a ) + ρ gh
=ρ w g ( b−a+h )

ρ= ρH 2 O=10 3 kg/ m3 , b=0 . 15 m, a=0 . 25 m , h=0 . 3 m:

putting
3
pB − p A=10 ×9. 81 ( 0 .15−0 .25+0. 3 )
3 2
=1.962×10 N /m
ρH O
(b) if the top is filled with oil of relative density 0.8, ρmano = 0.8 2 ,

pB − p A =ρg ( b−a ) + gh ( ρ−ρmano )

3 3
=10 ×9.81 ( 0 .15−0 .25 )+9.81×0 .3×10 ( 1−0. 8 )
=103 ×9. 81 (−0.1+0.06 )
2
=−392.4 N /m

SELF-ASSESSMENT

42 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment section and check
your answers with those given in the Feedback on Self-Assessment. If you face any problems,
discuss it with your lecturer. Good luck.

2.5 What is the gauge pressure of the water at A if h1 = 0.6 m and the mercury in the
right hand limb, h2 = 0.9 m as shown in the figure below?

2.6 In the figure below, fluid at A is water and fluid B is mercury (s =13.6). What will
be the difference in level h if the pressure at X is 140 kN/m2 and a =1.5 m?

2.7 Assuming that the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kN/m2 find the absolute pressure
at A in the figure below when
a) fluid P is water, fluid Q is mercury ω = 13.6, a = 1 m and h = 0.4 m.
b) fluid P is oil ω = 0.82, fluid Q is brine ω = 1.10, a = 20 cm and h = 55 cm.

43 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

2.8 In the figure below, fluid P is water and fluid Q is mercury (specific gravity=13.6).
If the pressure difference between A and B is 35 kN/m2, a = 1 m and b = 30 cm,
what is the difference in level h?

2.9 According to the figure in question 3.4, fluid P is oil (specific gravity = 0.85) and
fluid Q is water. If a = 120 cm, b = 60 cm and h = 45 cm, what is the difference in
pressure in kN/m2 between A and B?
2.10 In the figure below, fluid Q is water and fluid P is oil (specific gravity = 0.9). If h =
69 cm and z = 23 cm, what is the difference in pressure in kN/m2 between A and B?

2.11 In question 6, fluid Q is water and fluid P is air. Assuming that the specific weight
of air is negligible, what is the pressure difference in kN/m2 between A and B?

44 | Page
CHAPTER 3 : FLUID STATIC

FEEDBACK ON SELF-ASSESSMENT

Answers:

2.5 114.188 kN/m2 10M

2.6 1.1596 m (Patm = 0 KPa Ptolok) 10M

2.7 a) 38.124 kN/m2 10M

b) 93.756 kN/m2 10M

2.8 30.70 cm 10M

2.9 4.341 kN/m2 10M

2.10 1.579 kN/m2 Verify ON 10M

2.11 4.515 kN/m2 10M

45 | Page