Abhishek Thakur

xi-f
15
physics
Project file
On the topic

Mechanical
properties of fluids
 Pressure
Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object
per unit area over which that force is distributed pressure.
Formula:

Where,

F = Force applied by the body,

A = Total area of the object.

Pressure is a scalar quantity. The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa),
equal to one Newton per square metre (N/m2, or kg·m−1·s−2).The
dimensions of pressure are [ML-1 T-2]. A common unit of pressure is
atmosphere(atm), i.e. the pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea
level(1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa).

Density
The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a
substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for
density is ρ (the lower case Greek letter rho), Mathematically, density is
defined as :

ρ = m/V
The dimensions of density are [ML-3]. Its SI unit is kg/m3. It is a scalar
quantity. The density of water at 40 C (277 K) is 1.0 x 103 kg/m3.The
relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to the density
of water at40 C. It is a dimensionless scalar quantity.

Pascal’s law
Pascal's law (or the principle of transmission of fluid-pressure) is a
principle in fluid mechanics that states that a pressure change occurring
anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout
the fluid such that the same change occurs everywhere. The law was
established by French mathematician Blaise Pascal in 1647–48.

Consider a very small right angled triangular element ABC of a liquid.

Now total pressure on the vertical side AC of the liquid,

--------(1)
Similarly,total pressure on the horizontal side BC of the liquid,
-----------(2)
and total pressure on the diagonal side AB of the liquid,
----------(3)
Now using eqilibrium condition for horizontal pressure,
From the geometry of the figure, we find that,

------------(4)
Now using equilibrium condition for vertical pressure, i.e.,

(where W = Weight of the liquid)

As the triangular element is very small, the weight of the liquid W is neglected, so,

From the geometry of the figure, we find that

---------(5)
Now from equation (4)and (5), we find that

Thus the intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid, at rest, is the same in all direction.

Gauge pressure
A gauge is often used to measure the pressure difference between a
system and the surrounding atmosphere. This pressure is the gauge
pressure and can be expressed as:

pg = ps – patm

Where:

pg = gauge pressure

ps = system pressure
patm = atmospheric pressure

Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.

Therefore, it is positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and
negative for pressures below it.

The hydrostatic paradox arises from our failure to accept, at first sight,
the conclusion published by Blaise Pascal in 1663: the pressure at a
certain level in a fluid is proportional to the vertical distance to the
surface of the liquid.

A Torricellian barometer (sometimes called a mercury barometer) is

an inverted (upside-down) glass tube standing in a bath of mercury. Air
pressure pushes down on the surface of the mercury, making some rise
up the tube. The greater the air pressure, the higher the mercury rises.
You can read the pressure off a scale marked onto the glass.
 Hydraulic machines
Hydraulic machines are machinery and tools that use liquid fluid
power to do simple work. Heavy equipment is a common example. In
this type of machine, hydraulic fluid is transmitted throughout the
machine to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders and
becomes pressurized according to the resistance present.

System operation. In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal

is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the piston(s) in the master
cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a
pressure chamber through a compensating port.

The hydraulic lift is a device used to lift or bring down passengers

andloads from one floor to another in multi-storeyed buildings.

Streamline flow
The streamline flow is the flow of a fluid past an object such that the
velocity at any fixed point in the fluid is constant or varies in a regular
manner. The path taken by a fluid particle under a steady flow is a
streamline.
Equation of continuity:-

The Equation of Continuity can be expressed as:

m = ρi1 vi1 Ai1 + ρi2 vi2 Ai2 + .... + ρin vin Ain

= ρo1 vo1 Ao1 + ρo2 vo2 Ao2 + .... + ρom vom Aom (1)

where

m = mass flow rate (kg/s)

ρ = density (kg/m3)

v = speed (m/s)

A = area (m2)

With uniform density equation (1) can be modified to

q = vi1 Ai1 + vi2 Ai2 + .... + vin Ain

= vo1 Ao1 + vo2 Ao2 + .... + vom Aom (2)

where

q = flow rate (m3/s)

ρi1 = ρi2 = . . = ρin = ρo1 = ρo2 = .... = ρom

For a simple reduction (or expansion) as indicated in the figure

above - the equation of continuity for uniform density can be
transformed to

vin Ain = vout Aout

 bernoulli’s PrinciPle
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the
speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a
decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The principle is named after
Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.

Torricelli’s law
Torricelli's theorem states that the velocity of efflux for a nonviscous
fluid flowing from a cylindrical tank is where is the
acceleration due to gravity (10 ) and is the distance between the
surface of the water and the location of the spigot. However, this does
not specify the exact coefficient because it assumes that the velocity of
the water at the surface of the tank is negligible and that both the tank
and the spigot are exposed to atmospheric pressure. If the velocity of
the water at the surface is taken into account, the formula for the

velocity of efflux becomes , where it takes into

account r, the radius of the spigot, and R, the radius of the cylindrical
tank. This equation can be derived from Bernoulli's
equation, , and the continuity
equation, .

Venturi-meter
Venturi meters are flow measurement instruments which use a
converging section of pipe to give an increase in the flow velocity and a
corresponding pressure drop from which the flowrate can be deduced.
They have been in common use for many years, especially in the water
supply industry.
The area of cross sections of pipe at
ends where the venturi meter has
been connected
are A1 and A2respectively. The
corresponding velocity of fluid
are v1 and v2. Let P1 and P2 are the
pressure of fluid at the two ends 1
and 2.

Bernouilli's equation can be written

as,

--- ( i )
The vertical height of pipe is same, so there is no contribution from the
term .

Dynamic lift and magnus effect

Dynamic lift is the force that acts on a body by virtue of its motion
through a fluid. For example, during the game of cricket, tennis,
baseball or golf, we have noticed that a spinning ball deviates from its
parabolic trajectory during its motion in the air. The Magnus effect is
an effect in which a spinning ball or a cylinder curves away from its
principle path of flight .

Applications
Dynamic lift holds great importance in many fields such as
aerodynamics and many ball sports. The dynamic lift is given
consideration while designing the rotor ships and airplanes.
The figure above shows an aerofoil, which is a solid piece shaped to
provide an upward dynamic lift when it moves horizontally through the
air. We can recall that the cross section of the wings of an airplane
looks like the aerofoil with streamlines around it. When the aerofoil
moves against the wind, the orientation of the wing relative to flow
direction causes the streamlines to crowd together above the wing
more than those below it. The flow speed on top is higher than that
below it. Thus an upward force results in the dynamic lift of the wings.

Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual
deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds
to the informal concept of "thickness"; for example, honey has a much
higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the relative motion
between the two surfaces of the fluid that are moving at different
velocities. In simple terms, viscosity means friction between the
molecules of fluid. When the fluid is forced through a tube, the
particles which compose the fluid generally move more quickly near the
tube's axis and more slowly near its walls; therefore some stress (such
as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed
to overcome the friction between particle layers to keep the fluid
moving.