Fluid Dynamics

Fluid??
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the application of a shear stress. A fluid is either
a liquid or a gas. A fluid can easily be distinguished from a solid by application of a shear stress, since, by
definition, a fluid at rest cannot resist a shear stress.
If a shear stress is applied to the surface of a solid, the solid will deform a
little, and then remain at rest (in its new distorted shape). One can say that the
solid (at rest) is able to resist the shear stress.
But on the other hand, when a shear stress is applied to the surface of the fluid in a container, the fluid
will continuously deform, i.e. it will set up some kind of flow pattern inside the container. In other words,
the fluid (at rest) is unable to resist the shear stress. That is to say, it cannot remain at rest. Figure is
available in the following link [https://www.mne.psu.edu/cimbala/learning/fluid/introductory/flusher.gif].

Streamline and Turbulent Flow

In a simple flow of liquid, i.e., steady (or laminar), the velocity at every point in the liquid does not
change with time. In other words, each particle follows exactly the same path and has the same velocity as
its predecessor and the liquid is said to have an orderly or a streamline flow [Fig. (a)]. In such a case, if
we consider a line along which a particle of the liquid moves, the direction of the line at any point is the
direction of the velocity of the liquid at that point. Such a line is called a streamline.

(a)

(b)

On the other hand, the velocity of the liquid exceeds a particular limiting value, called its critical
velocity, beyond which the flow of the liquid loses all its steadiness or orderliness, and becomes zigzag or
sinuous, acquiring what is called a turbulent motion as shown in the above Fig. (b).

A transition from streamline flow to

nonsteady (or turbulent) flow for a rising
stream of smoke is shown in the right of
the figure. The speed of the smoke
particles increases as they rise and, at a
certain critical speed, the flow changes
from steady to nonsteady.
The Equation of Continuity
Here we wish to derive an expression that relates speed v and cross-sectional area A for the steady flow of
an ideal fluid through a tube with varying cross-section, like that in the Fig. 1 below. The flow there is
toward the right and the tube segment shown has length L. The fluid has speeds v1 at the left end of the
segment and v2 at the right end. The tube has cross-sectional areas A1 at the left end and A2 at the right end.
Suppose that in a time interval ∆t, a volume V of fluid enters the left segment of the tube indicated by
purple color; an identical volume V must emerge from the right end of the segment (green color) because
of the incompressible property of fluid.

Fig. 1

To relate the speeds and areas, first consider Fig. 2, which shows a
side view of a tube of uniform cross-sectional area A. In Fig. 2a, a
fluid element e is about to pass through the dashed line with speed v, Fig. 2
so during a time interval ∆t, the element moves along the tube a
distance ∆x = v ∆t. The volume V of fluid flowing through the
dashed line in that time interval ∆t is
𝑉 = 𝐴∆𝑥 = 𝐴𝑣∆𝑡
Appling this to both the left and right ends of the tube segment in Fig. 1, we have
𝑉 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡
or, 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 (1)
This relation between speed and cross-sectional area is called the equation of continuity for the flow of
an ideal fluid. It tells us that the flow speed increases by decreasing the cross-sectional area through which
the fluid flows.
Since the volume flow rate RV must be the same for all cross-sections of the tube of flow, then we can
rewrite the equation of continuity as
𝑅𝑉 = 𝐴𝑣 = a constant (2)
The mass flow rate can also be written as
𝑅𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 = a constant (3)
P1. The stream of water emerging from a tap as it falls. The change in the horizontal cross-sectional area
is characteristic of any steady falling stream because the gravitational force increases the speed of the
stream. Given the cross-sectional areas are A0 = 1.2 cm2 and A = 0.35 cm2. The two levels are separated
by a vertical distance 45 mm. What is the volume flow rate from the tap and also its mass flow rate?
Bernoulli's Theorem and its Important Applications
Bernoulli's theorem states that the total energy of a small amount of liquid flowing from one point to
another, without any friction, remains constant throughout the displacement. Mathematically,
potential energy + pressure energy + kinetic energy = a constant
or, ℎ𝑔 + 𝑃/𝜌 + 𝑣 2 /2 = 𝐶, 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (1)
This relation is known as Bernoulli's Equation.
We may, therefore, also state Bernoulli's theorem in another way, viz., that if the flow of the liquid be
horizontal, the gravitational head h is a constant; so that,
𝑃/𝜌𝑔 + 𝑣 2 /2𝑔 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (2)
Since the potential or gravitational energy hg would be a constant, so that equation (1) can also be
rewritten as
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 /2 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (3)
2
where, P is referred to as the static pressure of the liquid and 𝜌𝑣 /2 as its dynamic pressure. In this case,
we may express this result by saying that for a horizontal motion of the liquid, the sum of its static and
dynamic pressures remains a constant.
Thus, for horizontal flow of a liquid, the pressure and velocity at one point be P1 and v1 and at another, P2
and v2 respectively, we have
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22 (4)
2 2
which tells us that if the speed of a fluid element increases as the element travels along a horizontal
streamline, the pressure of the fluid must decrease, and conversely.
Proof of Bernoulli's Theorem
Fig. 3 shows the system which contains the entire volume of the
(ideal) fluid. We will apply the principle of conservation of
energy to this system as it moves from its initial state (Fig. 3a) to
its final state (Fig. 3b).The fluid lying between the two vertical
planes separated by a distance L, does not change its properties
during this process; but only changes that take place at the input
and output ends.
First, applying energy conservation in the form of the work–
kinetic energy theorem, i.e., the change in the kinetic energy of
the system must equal the net work done on the system. Fig. 3
𝑊 = ∆𝐾 (5)
The change in kinetic energy results from the change in speed
between the ends of the tube and is
1 1
∆𝐾 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) = 𝜌𝑉(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) (6 )
2 2
in which m (= ρV) is the mass of the fluid that enters at the input
end and leaves at the output end during a small time interval ∆t.
The work done on the system arises from two sources. The work Wg done by the gravitational force (mg)
on the fluid during the vertical lift from the input level to the output level is
𝑊𝑔 = −𝑚𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) = −𝜌𝑔𝑉(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) (7)

The negative sign indicates that the upward displacement and the downward gravitational force have
opposite directions.
Again, work must also be done on the system (at the input end) to push the entering fluid into the tube and
by the system (at the output end) to push forward the fluid that is located ahead of the emerging fluid. In
general, the work done by a force of magnitude F, acting on a fluid sample contained in a tube of area A
to move the fluid through a distance ∆x, is 𝐹∆𝑥 = (𝑃𝐴)∆𝑥 = 𝑃 (𝐴∆𝑥) = 𝑃𝑉. The work done on the
system is then 𝑃1 𝑉, and the work done by the system is −𝑃2 𝑉. Their sum WP is
𝑊𝑃 = −(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )𝑉 (8)
The work–kinetic energy theorem becomes
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑃 + 𝑊𝑔 = ∆𝐾
Therefore,
1
−𝜌𝑔𝑉 (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) − 𝑉 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = 𝜌𝑉(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2

Application of Bernoulli's Theorem

 Velocity of Efflux of a Liquid
Let the surface of the liquid be at a height h above the level of the
orifice O in a tank (Fig. 4). If the tank be sufficiently wide, the
velocity at the liquid surface may be taken to be zero, the pressure
being, clearly, atmospheric. Since the pressure is also atmospheric
at the orifice, where the liquid emerges, it plays no part in the
flow of the liquid. If v be the velocity at the level of the orifice, Fig. 4
we have, considering a tube of flow beginning at the surface and
ending at O,
total energy at the surface = potential energy + pressure energy + kinetic energy
= 𝑔ℎ + 𝑃0 + 0
because pressure at the surface, P = 𝑃0 (atmospheric pressure), P.E. = gh and K.E. = 0.
And, total energy at 𝑂 = 0 + 𝑃0 + 𝑣 2 /2
because pressure at O, P = 𝑃0 , P.E. = 0 and K.E. = 𝑣 2 /2.
Since the total energy remains the same, we have
𝑣 2 /2 = 𝑔ℎ
whence, 𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ
This is the velocity of efflux of the liquid at the orifice O. This result was first obtained by Torricelli
(1644) and hence is known as Torricelli's theorem, or the Law of efflux, and may be stated as follows:
The velocity of efflux of a liquid through an orifice is equal to that which a body attains in falling freely
from the surface of the liquid to the orifice.
P2. Calculate the velocity of efflux of kerosene oil from a tank in which the pressure is 50 Ibs. wt. per sq.
inch above the atmospheric pressure. The density of kerosene is 48 Ibs. per cubic foot.
Viscosity
This is a measure of a fluid’s resistance which is being deformed by either shear stress or tensile stress. It
describes the internal friction of a moving fluid. Imagine a Styrofoam cup with a hole in the bottom. If I
then pour honey into the cup, it drains very slowly because of its large viscosity compared to other liquids.
If I fill the same cup with water, for example, the cup will drain much more quickly.

Coefficient of Viscosity (η)

Newton showed that the backward dragging force F, acting tangentially on any liquid layer, is directly
proportional to its surface area A, and velocity v, and inversely proportional to its distance x from the
stationary layer, i.e.
𝐹 ∝ 𝐴, 𝐹 ∝ −𝑣, 𝐹 ∝ 1/𝑥;
the negative sign of v merely indicates that the direction of the force is opposite to that of velocity.
Or, 𝐹 ∝ −𝐴𝑣/𝑥
∴ 𝐹 = −𝜂𝐴𝑣/𝑥
where η is a constant, depending upon the nature of the liquid, and is called its coefficient of viscosity.
Now, v/x may be put as dv/dx, which gives the rate of change of velocity with distance, and is called the
velocity gradient; so that, we have
𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝐹 = −𝜂𝐴
𝑑𝑥
This is known as Newton's law of viscous flow in streamline motion. If A = 1 cm2 and dv/dx = 1; F = η.
Thus, the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid may be defined as the tangential force required per unit area
to maintain a unit velocity gradient. Clearly, if this tangential force be unity, the coefficient of viscosity of
the liquid is unity, and is called Poise, after Poiseuille, whose work on viscosity is important.

Poiseuille's Equation for flow of liquid

Imagine a two cylindrical layer or shell of liquid, of radius x and x + dx, flowing through a capillary tube
of radius r. Let v be the velocity of flow at all points on this cylindrical shell will be the same. As the
velocity of the layers in contact with the walls of the tube is zero and goes on increasing towards the axis.
The backward tangential force/viscous force is applied to the layer of radius is x from the center, in
accordance with relation, given by
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = −𝜂𝐴 = −𝜂(2𝜋𝑥𝑙)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
where surface area A of the cylindrical shell of radius x is equal to 2πxl, where l is the length of the
cylinder.
Let the difference of pressure at the two ends of the capillary tube be P. Then, the external force on the
cylindrical shell, in the direction of flow, is clearly equal to P.πx2, and tends to accelerate the motion of
the liquid. If the motion of the liquid be steady, we have
−𝜂. 2𝜋𝑥𝑙. 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑥 = 𝑃. 𝜋𝑥 2
The above expression can be written as
𝑃𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 = −
2𝜂𝑙
𝑃 𝑃𝑥 2
∴𝑣=− ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − +𝐶 (1)
2𝜂𝑙 4𝜂𝑙
where C is a constant of integration.
Now, v = 0, when x = r, because the layers in contact with the sides of the tube are stationary. Then the
equation (1) becomes
𝑃𝑟 2 𝑃𝑟 2
0=− + 𝐶, whence 𝐶 =
4𝜂𝑙 4𝜂𝑙
Therefore,
𝑃𝑥 2 𝑃𝑟 2 𝑃
𝑣=− + = (𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 ) (2)
4𝜂𝑙 4𝜂𝑙 4𝜂𝑙
Now, the cross-sectional area between the two shells is clearly 2πx.dx and since v is the velocity of the
flow of liquid in-between the two shells, the volume of liquid flowing per second through the cross-
sectional area is dV = 2πx.dx v. Therefore, the volume V of the liquid, in unit time, will be obtained by
integrating the expression for dV between the limits, x = 0 and x = r.
𝑟
𝜋𝑃 𝑟
𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = ∫ (𝑥𝑟 2 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
0 2𝜂𝑙 0
𝜋𝑃 𝑟 2 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 𝜋𝑃 𝑟 4
= [ − ]=
2𝜂𝑙 2 4 2𝜂𝑙 4

Whence,
𝜋𝑃𝑟 4
𝜂= (3)
8𝑉𝑙

The above relation holds good only when

i. the flow is steady, i.e., when its average velocity is less than its critical velocity;
ii. the pressure is constant over every cross-section, i.e., there is no radial flow and
iii. the liquid in contact with the sides of the tube is stationary.
When the velocity of flow is small, and the tube is a narrow one, these assumptions are more or less valid.
It is clear, therefore, that for tubes of wide bores, the relation breaks down because of their much smaller
value of the critical velocity (𝑣𝑐 ∝ 1/𝑟) and the flow of the liquid becomes turbulent. As shown in
following figure, we can see that when the velocity of the liquid is below the critical value, the rate of
flow V is proportional to the pressure difference P as indicated by the straight part OA of the curve. Thus,
within this range of velocity, the rate of flow of a liquid depends chiefly on its viscosity, quite in
accordance with Poiseuille's formula.

Beyond the critical velocity, the rate of flow is now no longer proportional to P and hence no longer
depends upon its viscosity. In fact, it now depends mainly on the density of the liquid (ρ) and is
approximately proportional to √𝑃. In this case, the flow of the liquid becomes turbulent.
The following interesting consequences follow from the above:
1) Since in turbulent motion, the rate of flow of a liquid is quite independent of its viscosity, it obviously
follows that all liquids, irrespective of their different viscosities, would require the same pressure
difference to be driven through a tube at velocities higher than the critical velocities. Thus, for
example, a viscous liquid, like treacle would require the same pressure difference to be driven through
a tube, at a velocity greater than its critical velocity, as would be needed to drive water through it at
the same velocity.
2) Since the critical velocity of a liquid is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube, it is clear that
liquids of all viscosities would flow equally readily through tubes of sufficiently wide bores. Thus, in
a wide tube, treacle will flow just as freely as water. A typical natural example of this is the free flow
of the highly viscous lava down the sides of an erupting volcano, its rate of flow being about the same
as we would expect in the case of water.

P3. Water is escaping from a cistern by way of a horizontal capillary tube, 10 cm long and 0.4 mm in
diameter, at a distance of 50 cm, below the free surface of water in the cistern. If the rate at which the water
is escaping from the capillary tube is 860 cc per second. Calculate the coefficient of viscosity for water.
Stokes' law
Stokes showed that the retarding force F, due to the viscous drag, for a spherical body of radius r, moving
with velocity v, in a medium whose coefficient of viscosity is η is given by
𝐹 = 6𝜋𝑣𝑟𝜂
This relation, known as Stokes' law, may be written as follows,
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑣𝑟𝜂
where K is a constant, equal to 6π.
Terminal velocity
This is the highest velocity attainable by an object (of course, of a small size) as it falls through a fluid. It
occurs when the sum of the retarding force (Fr) and the upward force (U) is equal to the downward force
of gravity (Fg) acting on the object. Since the net force on the object is zero, the object has zero
acceleration.

If the density of the spherical body be ρ, then the downward force of gravity
4
𝐹𝑔 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑔
3
and the upthrust on it due to the viscous medium
4
𝑈 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜎𝑔
3
where σ is the density of the fluid.
Therefore, the resultant downward force on the body
4
𝐹𝑔 − 𝑈 = 𝜋𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
3
Equating this against the value of Fr, we have
4
6𝜋𝑣𝑟𝜂 = 𝜋𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
3
Whence,
2 𝑟 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
𝑣=
9 𝜂
Thus, the terminal velocity of a body, falling through a viscous medium, is directly proportional to the
square of its radius, the difference in the densities of the body and the medium and inversely proportional
to the coefficient of viscosity of the medium.
Also, if 𝜎 > 𝜌, it is clear that the terminal velocity will have a negative value. In such a case,
therefore, the body will have an upward terminal velocity. That is why bubbles of air or gas can rise up
through water or any other liquid, the smaller the bubble, the smaller its velocity.
Measurement of viscosity
The liquid is taken in a tall jar, of a large diameter. Now a sphere of suitable size, whose radius r, dropped
slowly into it. After getting the terminal velocity, the sphere falls downward at constant velocity.

In actual practice, we have two marks A and B, (above figure), some distance (say 10 to 12 cm) below
the top and above the bottom of the jar respectively, and allow small spheres of known radii to fall
through the liquid centrally, noting the time taken by each to cross the distance S between the two marks
A and B, it being assumed that due to the small size of the sphere, it has already acquired its terminal
velocity before crossing the mark A. Thus, since it moves with a constant velocity over this distance S, its
terminal velocity, v = S/t.
If we know the densities of the sphere and the fluid, then we can easily find the coefficient of viscosity
2 𝑟 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔𝑡
𝜂=
9 𝑆

P4. A gas bubble of diameter 2 cm, rises steadily through a solution of density 1.75 gm/cc at the rate of
0.35 cm/sec. Calculate the coefficient of viscosity of the solution by neglecting the density of the gas.
Pressure and Temperature dependence of Viscosity
The plot gives a global view of the pressure and temperature dependence of viscosity. The reduced
viscosity is plotted against the reduced temperature for various values of the reduced pressure. A
"reduced" quantity is one that has been made dimensionless by dividing by the corresponding quantity at
the critical point. The chart shows that the viscosity of a gas approaches a limit (the low density limit) as
the pressure becomes smaller; for most gases, this limit is nearly attained at 1 atm pressure. The viscosity
of a gas at low density increases with increasing temperature, whereas the viscosity of a liquid decreases
with increasing temperature.
P4. A gas bubble of diameter 2 cm, rises steadily through a solution of density 1.75 gm/cc. If the
coefficient of viscosity of the solution is 103 Poise then calculate the velocity of the gas bubble by
neglecting the density of the gas.